Freud was the first to characterize the psyche as a battlefield between irreconcilable instincts, reason and consciousness. His psychoanalytic theory exemplifies the psychodynamic approach. The concept of dynamics in his theory implies that human behavior is completely determined, and unconscious mental processes are of great importance in regulating human behavior.

The term "psychoanalysis" has three meanings:

Theory of personality and psychopathology;

Method of therapy for personality disorders;

A method of studying an individual's unconscious thoughts and feelings.

This connection of theory with therapy and personality assessment links all ideas about human behavior, but behind it lies a small number of original concepts and principles. Let us first consider Freud's views on the organization of the psyche, on the so-called “topographic model”.

Topographic model of levels of consciousness.

According to this model, three levels can be distinguished in mental life: consciousness, preconscious and unconscious.

The level of “consciousness” consists of sensations and experiences that we are aware of at a given moment in time. According to Freud, consciousness contains only a small percentage of all information stored in the brain, and quickly descends into the region of the preconscious and unconscious as a person switches to other signals.

The area of ​​the preconscious, the area of ​​“accessible memory,” includes experiences that are not needed at the moment, but which can return to consciousness spontaneously or with a minimum of effort. The preconscious is a bridge between conscious and unconscious areas of the psyche.

The deepest and most significant area of ​​the mind is the unconscious. It represents a repository of primitive instinctual urges plus emotions and memories that, as a result of a number of reasons, have been repressed from consciousness. The area of ​​the unconscious largely determines our daily functioning.

Personality structure

However, in the early 20s, Freud revised his conceptual model of mental life and introduced three main structures into the anatomy of personality: id (it), ego and superego. This was called the structural model of personality, although Freud himself was inclined to consider them processes rather than structures.

Let's take a closer look at all three components.

ID.“The division of the psyche into conscious and unconscious is the main premise of psychoanalysis, and only it gives it the opportunity to understand and introduce to science frequently observed and very important pathological processes in mental life. Freud attached great importance to this division: “psychoanalytic theory begins here.”

The word "ID" comes from the Latin "IT", in Freud's theory it refers to the primitive, instinctual and innate aspects of personality such as sleep, eating, defecation, copulation and energizes our behavior. The id has its central meaning for the individual throughout life, it does not have any restrictions, it is chaotic. Being the initial structure of the psyche, the id expresses the primary principle of all human life - the immediate discharge of psychic energy produced by primary biological impulses, the restraint of which leads to tension in personal functioning. This discharge is called the pleasure principle. Submitting to this principle and not knowing fear or anxiety, the id, in its pure manifestation, can pose a danger to the individual and society. It also plays the role of an intermediary between somatic and mental processes. Freud also described two processes by which the id relieves the personality of tension: reflex actions and primary processes. An example of a reflex action is coughing in response to irritation of the respiratory tract. But these actions do not always lead to stress relief. Then primary processes come into play, which form mental images directly related to the satisfaction of the basic need.

Primary processes are an illogical, irrational form of human ideas. It is characterized by an inability to suppress impulses and distinguish between the real and the unreal. The manifestation of behavior as a primary process can lead to the death of the individual if external sources of satisfying needs do not appear. Thus, according to Freud, infants cannot delay the satisfaction of their primary needs. And only after they realize the existence of the outside world does the ability to delay the satisfaction of these needs appear. From the moment this knowledge appears, the next structure arises - the ego.

EGO.(Latin “ego” - “I”) A component of the mental apparatus responsible for decision making. The ego, being separated from the id, draws part of its energy to transform and realize needs in a socially acceptable context, thus ensuring the safety and self-preservation of the body. It uses cognitive and perceptual strategies in its effort to satisfy the ID's desires and needs.

The ego in its manifestations is guided by the principle of reality, the purpose of which is to preserve the integrity of the organism by delaying gratification until finding the possibility of its discharge and/or appropriate environmental conditions. The ego was called by Freud a secondary process, the “executive organ” of the personality, the area where intellectual processes of problem solving take place. Releasing some ego energy to solve problems at a higher level of the psyche is one of the main goals of psychoanalytic therapy.

Thus, we come to the last component of personality.

SUPEREGO.“We want to make the subject of this study the Self, our most proper Self. But is this possible? After all, the Self is the most authentic subject, how can it become an object? And yet, undoubtedly, it is possible. I can take myself as an object, treat myself like other objects, observe myself, criticize and God knows what else to do with myself. At the same time, one part of the Self opposes itself to the rest of the Self. So, the Self is dismembered, it is dismembered in some of its functions, at least for a while... I could simply say that the special authority that I begin to distinguish in the Self is conscience, but It would be more cautious to consider this authority independent and to assume that conscience is one of its functions, and self-observation, necessary as a prerequisite for the judicial activity of conscience, is its other function. And since, recognizing the independent existence of a thing, it is necessary to give it a name, I will henceforth call this authority in the Ego “Super-Ego.”

This is how Freud imagined the superego - the last component of the developing personality, functionally meaning a system of values, norms and ethics that are reasonably compatible with those accepted in the environment of the individual.

Being the moral and ethical force of the individual, the superego is a consequence of prolonged dependence on parents. “The role which the super-ego later takes upon itself is fulfilled first by an external force, the parental authority... The super-ego, which thus takes upon itself the power, work and even methods of the parental authority, is not only its successor, but actually legitimate direct heir."

Next, the development function is taken over by society (school, peers, etc.). One can also view the superego as an individual reflection of the “collective conscience” of society, although the values ​​of society can be distorted by the child’s perception.

The superego is divided into two subsystems: conscience and ego-ideal. Conscience is acquired through parental discipline. It includes the ability for critical self-evaluation, the presence of moral prohibitions and the emergence of feelings of guilt in the child. The rewarding aspect of the superego is the ego ideal. It is formed from the positive assessments of parents and leads the individual to set high standards for himself. The superego is considered fully formed when parental control is replaced by self-control. However, the self-control principle does not serve the reality principle. The superego directs a person towards absolute perfection in thoughts, words and actions. It tries to convince the ego of the superiority of idealistic ideas over realistic ones.

Psychological defense mechanisms

Psychological protection– a system of personality stabilization aimed at eliminating or minimizing the feeling of anxiety associated with awareness of the conflict.

S. Freud identified eight main defense mechanisms.

1). Suppression (repression, repression) is the selective removal from consciousness of painful experiences that took place in the past. This is a form of censorship that blocks out traumatic experiences. Suppression is never final; it is often the source of physical illnesses of a psychogenic nature (headaches, arthritis, ulcers, asthma, heart disease, hypertension, etc.). The mental energy of suppressed desires exists in the human body regardless of his consciousness and finds its painful bodily expression.

2). Denial is an attempt not to accept as reality events that bother the “I” (some unacceptable event did not happen). This is an escape into a fantasy that seems absurd to objective observation. “This cannot be” - a person shows indifference to logic, does not notice contradictions in his judgments. Unlike repression, denial operates on a preconscious rather than an unconscious level.

3). Rationalization is the construction of a logically incorrect conclusion, carried out for the purpose of self-justification. (“It doesn’t matter whether I pass this exam or not, I will be kicked out of the university in any case”); (“Why study diligently, this knowledge will not be useful in practical work anyway”). Rationalization hides true motives and makes actions morally acceptable.

4). Inversion (formation of a reaction) is the replacement of an unacceptable reaction with another that is opposite in meaning; substitution of thoughts, feelings that correspond to a genuine desire, with diametrically opposed behavior, thoughts, feelings (for example, a child initially wants to receive the love and attention of the mother, but, not receiving this love, begins to experience the exact opposite desire to annoy, anger the mother, cause a quarrel and hatred of the mother to yourself). The most common inversion options: guilt can be replaced by a feeling of indignation, hatred by devotion, resentment by overprotection.

5). Projection is the attribution of one’s own qualities, thoughts, and feelings to another person. When something is condemned in others, this is precisely what a person does not accept in himself, but cannot admit it, does not want to understand that these same qualities are inherent in him. For example, a person states that “some people are deceivers,” although this could actually mean “I deceive sometimes.” A person, experiencing a feeling of anger, accuses another of being angry.

6). Isolation is the separation of the threatening part of the situation from the rest of the mental sphere, which can lead to separation, dual personality. A person can retreat more and more into the ideal, being less and less in touch with his own feelings. (There is no internal dialogism, when various internal positions of the individual receive the right to vote).

7). Regression is a return to an earlier, primitive way of responding. Moving away from realistic thinking into behavior that alleviates anxiety and fear, as in childhood. The source of anxiety remains unresolved due to the primitiveness of the method. Any departure from reasonable, responsible behavior can be considered regression.

8). Sublimation is the process of transforming sexual energy into socially acceptable forms of activity (creativity, social contacts). (In his work on the psychoanalysis of L. da Vinci, Freud considers his work as sublimation).

Personal development

One of the premises of psychoanalytic theory is that a person is born with a certain amount of libido, which then goes through several stages in its development, referred to as psychosexual stages of development. Psychosexual development is a biologically determined sequence that unfolds in an invariable order and is inherent in all people, regardless of cultural level.

Freud proposed a hypothesis about four stages: oral, anal, phallic and genital. When considering these stages, several other factors introduced by Freud must be taken into account.

Frustration. In case of frustration, the child’s psychosexual needs are suppressed by parents or educators and therefore do not find optimal satisfaction.

Overprotectiveness. With overprotectiveness, the child does not have the ability to manage his own internal functions.

In any case, there is an accumulation of libido, which in adulthood can lead to “residual” behavior associated with the stage at which frustration or regression occurred.

Also important concepts in psychoanalytic theory are regression and fixation. Regression, i.e. a return to the earliest stage and the manifestation of childish behavior characteristic of this period. Although regression is considered a special case of fixation - a delay or cessation of development at a certain stage. Followers of Freud consider regression and fixation to be complementary.

ORAL STAGE. The oral stage lasts from birth until approximately 18 months of age. During this period, he is completely dependent on his parents, and the mouth area is associated with the concentration of pleasant sensations and the satisfaction of biological needs. According to Freud, the mouth remains an important erogenous zone throughout a person's life. The oral stage ends when breastfeeding stops. Freud described two personality types when fixating at this stage: oral-passive and oral-aggressive

ANAL STAGE. The anal stage begins at the age of 18 months and continues until the third year of life. During the period, young children derive considerable pleasure from delaying the expulsion of feces. During this stage of toilet training, the child learns to differentiate between id demands (the pleasure of immediate defecation) and social restrictions emanating from parents (independent control of needs). Freud believed that all future forms of self-control and self-regulation originate from this stage.

PHALLIC STAGE. Between three and six years of age, libido-driven interests shift to the genital area. During the phallic phase of psychosexual development, children may explore their genitals, masturbate, and show interest in matters related to birth and sexual relations. Children, according to Freud, have at least a vague idea of ​​sexual relations and, for the most part, understand sexual intercourse as aggressive actions of the father towards the mother.

The dominant conflict of this stage in boys is called the Oedipus complex, and the similar one in girls is the Electra complex.

The essence of these complexes lies in the unconscious desire of each child to have a parent of the opposite sex and the elimination of a parent of the same sex.

LATENT PERIOD. In the interval from 6-7 years to the beginning of adolescence there is a phase of sexual calm, the latent period.

Freud paid little attention to the processes during this period, since in his opinion the sexual instinct was supposedly dormant at this time.

GENITAL STAGE. The initial phase of the genital stage (the period lasting from adulthood to death) is characterized by biochemical and physiological changes in the body. The result of these changes is the increased excitability and increased sexual activity characteristic of adolescents. In other words, entry into the genital stage is marked by the most complete satisfaction of the sexual instinct. Development normally leads to the choice of a marriage partner and the creation of a family.

Genital character is the ideal personality type in psychoanalytic theory. Discharge of libido during sexual intercourse provides the possibility of physiological control over impulses coming from the genitals. Freud said that in order for a normal genital type of character to be formed, a person must abandon the passivity characteristic of childhood, when all forms of satisfaction were easy.

Freud's psychoanalytic theory is an example of a psychodynamic approach to the study of human behavior. The theory considers human behavior to be completely determined, dependent on internal psychological conflicts. Also, this theory considers a person as a whole, i.e. from a holistic point of view, since it was based on the clinical method. From the analysis of the theory, it follows that Freud, more than other psychologists, was committed to the idea of ​​immutability. He was convinced that the personality of an adult is formed from the experiences of early childhood. From his point of view, the changes occurring in the behavior of an adult are shallow and do not affect changes in the structure of the personality.

Believing that a person’s sensation and perception of the surrounding world is purely individual and subjective, Freud suggested that human behavior is regulated by the desire to reduce the unpleasant arousal that arises at the level of the body when an external stimulus occurs. Human motivation, according to Freud, is based on homeostasis. And since he believed that human behavior is completely determined, this makes it possible to fully study it with the help of science.

Freud's theory of personality served as the basis for psychoanalytic therapy, which is successfully used today.

6.2 Analytical psychology of C. G. Jung .

As a result of Jung's processing of psychoanalysis, a whole complex of complex ideas appeared from such diverse fields of knowledge as psychology, philosophy, astrology, archeology, mythology, theology and literature.

This breadth of intellectual exploration, coupled with Jung's complex and enigmatic writing style, is why his psychological theory is one of the most difficult to understand. Recognizing these complexities, we nevertheless hope that a brief introduction to Jung's views will serve as a starting point for further reading of his writings.

Personality structure

Jung argued that the soul (a term analogous to personality in Jung's theory) is composed of three separate but interacting structures: consciousness, the personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious.

The center of the sphere of consciousness is the ego. It is a component of the psyche, which includes all those thoughts, feelings, memories and sensations through which we feel our integrity, constancy and perceive ourselves as people. The ego serves as the basis of our self-awareness, and thanks to it we are able to see the results of our ordinary conscious activities.

The personal unconscious contains conflicts and memories that were once conscious but are now repressed or forgotten. It also includes those sensory impressions that are not bright enough to be noted in consciousness. Thus, Jung's concept of the personal unconscious is somewhat similar to Freud's.

However, Jung went further than Freud, emphasizing that the personal unconscious contains complexes, or accumulations of emotionally charged thoughts, feelings and memories, brought by the individual from his past personal experience or from ancestral, hereditary experience.

According to Jung's ideas, these complexes, arranged around the most common themes, can have a fairly strong influence on the behavior of an individual. For example, a person with a power complex may expend a significant amount of mental energy on activities directly or symbolically related to the theme of power. The same may be true of a person who is strongly influenced by his mother, father, or under the power of money, sex, or some other kind of complex. Once formed, the complex begins to influence a person’s behavior and attitude. Jung argued that the material of each of us’s personal unconscious is unique and, as a rule, accessible to awareness. As a result, components of the complex, or even the entire complex, may become conscious and have an unduly strong influence on the individual's life.

Finally, Jung suggested the existence of a deeper layer in the structure of personality, which he called the collective unconscious. The collective unconscious is a repository of latent memory traces of humanity and even of our anthropoid ancestors. It reflects thoughts and feelings common to all human beings and resulting from our common emotional past. As Jung himself said, “the collective unconscious contains the entire spiritual heritage of human evolution, reborn in the structure of the brain of each individual.” Thus, the content of the collective unconscious is formed due to heredity and is the same for all humanity. It is important to note that the concept of the collective unconscious was the main reason for the differences between Jung and Freud.

Archetypes.

Jung hypothesized that the collective unconscious consists of powerful primary mental images, the so-called archetypes (literally, “primary patterns”). Archetypes are innate ideas or memories that predispose people to perceive, experience, and respond to events in a certain way.

In reality, these are not memories or images as such, but rather predisposing factors under the influence of which people implement universal patterns of perception, thinking and action in their behavior in response to any object or event. What is innate here is the tendency to respond emotionally, cognitively, and behaviorally to specific situations—for example, an unexpected encounter with a parent, a loved one, a stranger, a snake, or death.

Among the many archetypes described by Jung are mother, child, hero, sage, sun deity, rogue, God and death (Table 4-2).

Jung believed that each archetype is associated with a tendency to express a certain type of feeling and thought in relation to a corresponding object or situation. For example, a child's perception of his mother contains aspects of her actual characteristics that are colored by unconscious ideas about such archetypal maternal attributes as nurturing, fertility, and dependence. Further, Jung suggested that archetypal images and ideas are often reflected in dreams and are also often found in culture in the form of symbols used in painting, literature and religion. In particular, he emphasized that symbols characteristic of different cultures often show striking similarities because they go back to archetypes common to all humanity. For example, in many cultures he came across images of mandala, which are symbolic embodiments of the unity and integrity of the “I”. Jung believed that understanding archetypal symbols helped him in analyzing a patient's dreams.

The number of archetypes in the collective unconscious can be unlimited. However, special attention in Jung's theoretical system is given to the persona, anime and animus, shadow and self.

Persona (from the Latin word meaning “mask”) is our public face, that is, how we show ourselves in relationships with other people. Persona denotes many roles that we play in accordance with social requirements. In Jung's understanding, a persona serves the purpose of impressing others or concealing one's true identity from others. The persona as an archetype is necessary for us to get along with other people in everyday life.

However, Jung warned that if this archetype becomes too important, a person can become shallow, superficial, reduced to a role, and alienated from true emotional experience.

In contrast to the role that the persona plays in our adaptation to the world around us, the shadow archetype represents the repressed dark, bad and animal side of the personality. The shadow contains our socially unacceptable sexual and aggressive impulses, immoral thoughts and passions. But the shadow also has positive properties.

Jung viewed the shadow as the source of vitality, spontaneity and creativity in an individual's life. According to Jung, the function of the ego is to channel the energy of the shadow, to curb the harmful side of our nature to such an extent that we can live in harmony with others, but at the same time openly express our impulses and enjoy a healthy and creative life .

The archetypes of anima and animus express Jung's recognition of the innate androgynous nature of people. The anima represents the inner image of a woman in a man, his unconscious feminine side, while the animus is the inner image of a man in a woman, her unconscious masculine side. These archetypes are based, at least in part, on the biological fact that men and women produce both male and female hormones. This archetype, Jung believed, had evolved over many centuries in the collective unconscious as a result of experiences with the opposite sex. Many men have been "feminized" at least to some extent by years of marriage to women, but the opposite is true for women. Jung insisted that anima and animus, like all other archetypes, must be expressed harmoniously, without disturbing the overall balance, so that the development of the individual in the direction of self-realization is not hampered. In other words, a man must express his feminine qualities along with his masculine ones, and a woman must express her masculine qualities as well as her feminine ones. If these necessary attributes remain undeveloped, the result will be one-sided growth and functioning of the personality.

The Self is the most important archetype in Jung's theory. The Self is the core of personality around which all other elements are organized and integrated. When integration of all aspects of the soul is achieved, a person experiences unity, harmony and wholeness. Thus, in Jung's understanding, the development of the self is the main goal of human life. We will return to the process of self-realization later, when we consider Jung's concept of individuation.

Ego orientation

Jung's most famous contribution to psychology is considered to be his description of two main orientations, or attitudes: extraversion and introversion. According to Jung's theory, both orientations coexist in a person at the same time, but one of them usually becomes dominant. The extroverted attitude manifests the direction of interest in the outside world - other people and objects. An extrovert is mobile, talkative, quickly establishes relationships and attachments; external factors are the driving force for him. An introvert, on the other hand, is immersed in the inner world of his thoughts, feelings and experiences. He is contemplative, reserved, strives for solitude, tends to withdraw from objects, his interest is focused on himself. According to Jung, extroverted and introverted attitudes do not exist in isolation. Usually they are both present and are in opposition to each other: if one appears as leading and rational, the other acts as auxiliary and irrational. The result of the combination of leading and auxiliary ego orientations is individuals whose behavior patterns are specific and predictable.

Psychological functions

Soon after Jung formulated the concept of extraversion and introversion, he came to the conclusion that this pair of opposing orientations could not sufficiently explain all the differences in people's attitudes towards the world. Therefore, he expanded his typology to include psychological functions. The four main functions he identified are thinking, sensing, feeling and intuition.

Jung classified thinking and feeling as rational functions because they allow us to form judgments about life experience.

The thinking type judges the value of certain things using logic and arguments. The function opposite to thinking - feeling - informs us about reality in the language of positive or negative emotions.

The feeling type focuses on the emotional side of life experiences and judges the value of things in terms of “good or bad,” “pleasant or unpleasant,” “motivating or boring.” According to Jung, when thinking acts as the leading function, the personality is focused on constructing rational judgments, the purpose of which is to determine whether the experience being evaluated is true or false. And when the leading function is feeling, the personality is focused on making judgments about whether this experience is primarily pleasant or unpleasant.

Jung called the second pair of opposing functions - sensation and intuition - irrational, because they simply passively “grasp”, register events in the external (sensation) or internal (intuition) world, without evaluating them or explaining their meaning. Sensation is a direct, non-judgmental, realistic perception of the external world. Sensing types are especially perceptive about taste, smell, and other sensations from stimuli in the world around them. In contrast, intuition is characterized by a subliminal and unconscious perception of current experience. The intuitive type relies on premonitions and guesses to grasp the essence of life events. Jung argued that when sensation is the leading function, a person perceives reality in the language of phenomena, as if he were photographing it. On the other hand, when the leading function is intuition, a person reacts to unconscious images, symbols and the hidden meaning of what is experienced.

Every person is endowed with all four psychological functions.

However, just as one personality orientation (extraversion or introversion) is usually dominant and conscious, similarly only one function of the rational or irrational pair is usually dominant and conscious. Other functions are immersed in the unconscious and play a supporting role in regulating human behavior. Any function can be leading. Accordingly, thinking, feeling, sensing and intuitive types of individuals are observed. According to Jung's theory, the integrated or “individuated” personality uses all the opposite functions to cope with life circumstances.

The two ego orientations and four psychological functions interact to form eight different personality types. For example, an extroverted thinking type focuses on objective, practical facts of the world around them. He usually comes across as a cold and dogmatic person who lives according to set rules. It is quite possible that the prototype of the extraverted thinking type was Freud. The introverted intuitive type, on the contrary, is focused on the reality of their own inner world. This type is usually eccentric, keeps aloof from others and is indifferent to them. In this case, Jung probably had himself in mind as a prototype.

Personal development

Unlike Freud, who attached particular importance to the early years of life as a decisive stage in the formation of individual behavior patterns, Jung viewed personality development as a dynamic process, as evolution throughout life. He said almost nothing about socialization in childhood and did not share Freud's views that only past events (especially psychosexual conflicts) determine human behavior. From Jung's point of view, a person constantly acquires new skills, achieves new goals and realizes himself more and more fully. He attached great importance to such an individual’s life goal as “gaining selfhood,” which is the result of the desire of various components of the personality for unity. This theme of the desire for integration, harmony and integrity was later repeated in existential and humanistic theories of personality.

According to Jung, the ultimate goal in life is the complete realization of the “I”, that is, the formation of a single, unique and integral individual.

The development of each person in this direction is unique, it continues throughout life and includes a process called individuation. Simply put, individuation is a dynamic and evolving process of integration of many opposing intrapersonal forces and tendencies. In its ultimate expression, individuation presupposes the conscious realization by a person of his unique psychic reality, the full development and expression of all elements of personality. Thus, the archetype of the self becomes the center of the personality and balances the many opposing qualities that make up the personality as a single master whole. This releases the energy needed for continued personal growth. The result of individuation, which is very difficult to achieve, Jung called self-realization. He believed that this final stage of personality development is accessible only to capable and highly educated people who also have sufficient leisure for this. Because of these limitations, self-realization is not available to the vast majority of people.

Final comments

Moving away from Freud's theory, Jung enriched our ideas about the content and structure of personality. Although his concepts of the collective unconscious and archetypes are difficult to understand and cannot be empirically verified, they continue to captivate many. His understanding of the unconscious as a rich and vital source of wisdom sparked a new wave of interest in his theory among the modern generation of students and professional psychologists. In addition, Jung was one of the first to recognize the positive contribution of religious, spiritual and even mystical experience to personal development. This is his special role as a predecessor of the humanistic trend in personology. We hasten to add that in recent years, among the intellectual community of the United States, there has been an increase in the popularity of analytical psychology and agreement with many of its provisions. Theologians, philosophers, historians and representatives of many other disciplines find Jung's creative insights extremely useful in their work.

6.3 Individual psychology of A. Adler .

Nowadays, there is probably no person who has not heard of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). This is an Austrian psychologist, neurologist and psychiatrist. He is the “father” of psychoanalysis, which had a huge influence not only on medicine, but also on sociology, art, and literature. The Austrian made a great contribution to understanding the cause-and-effect relationships of behavioral functions of the individual. Thanks to this, it became more clear why a person thinks, feels, acts this way and not otherwise.

For some specialists, Freud's theory is a model for understanding human essence, for others it is opportunistic, not having any rational basis. However, despite aggressive opponents, worldwide recognition is evident. Therefore, there are many people who want to get acquainted with the works of the Austrian psychologist. But it is impossible to review Freud’s works in full within the framework of one article. Firstly, they are intended for specialists, and secondly, they are too extensive and multifaceted. Therefore, in a condensed form, we will familiarize ourselves only with the main postulates and calculations that reflect the essence of Freudian theory.

The essence of Freud's theory

Sigmund Freud was convinced that everything we think and experience has a root cause. This means that there are no random actions in human behavior. In the depths of our consciousness there are hidden sources that encourage us to perform certain actions. The depths of consciousness are subconscious. It is this that plays a decisive role in our lives. It seems to us that we are reasonable, rational, and aware of our actions. However, in reality, this is only an outer shell, under which a huge layer of the unknown is hidden.

Freud's theory states that we all come from childhood. It is in the first 5-6 years of life that the foundations of human character are laid. In other words, a foundation is created on which the building is already built. At the same time, construction work continues throughout life. Something is changing, being removed, being added to. But the foundation is unshakable. You just can’t touch it, because then the whole building will collapse.

It should further be said that in the works of the venerable Austrian, great importance is attached to sex. But in this concept Freud included not the primitive copulation of two bodies, but the whole world of human pleasures, feelings and passions. As for sexual life, it is only part of a multifaceted and beautiful reality, the formation of which occurs in the first years of human life.

A child satisfies hunger not only because it is a physiological need of the body, but also because eating food gives him pleasure. He begins to experience love for those who lull him, caress him, wipe him, that is, give him physical joy. They are combined with spiritual food, when communication with a person gives the child pleasure.

As the child grows up, he discovers that his genitals are extremely sensitive. This is the next stage of personal development. But at its core, it is a continuation of the previous process, which is based on physical pleasures. The ability to love and the nature of this love become the basis of sex education.

From early childhood, every person is constantly encouraged to give up something they love. The baby loves to relieve himself whenever he pleases and ignores the toilet, but as he grows up he is forbidden to do this. The child wants to express his protest, but he is reminded that only small children cry.

The number of restrictions increases with age, and the requirements increase. Children don't like to get up early, but they are forced to do it because they have to go to kindergarten. And gradually, in the mind of the little person, the confidence is formed that one can earn the love of others only by not contradicting them. There is a suppression of one’s feelings and desires for the sake of other people.

A person grows and becomes an adult. He reaches psychological maturity, and sometimes, on the contrary, directs his strength to satisfying the same childhood desires. The only difference is that they change somewhat depending on the mental and intellectual development of the individual.

Someone can indulge in gluttony with pleasure. For these purposes, he uses his mouth, through which he receives pleasure. And another individual becomes a brilliant speaker. In this case, the same organ is used, but it brings pleasure on a different plane. The first person is limited to primitive pleasure to the detriment of genuine joys. The second achieves the highest harmony in his desires. In this case, both use the same part of the face.

Sigmund Freud (center) in the 1930s

Freud's theory describes many options for replacing childhood desires with more mature and adult ones. He called such processes “adaptation mechanisms.” They are based on the aspirations of a small child, which have undergone transformation as a result of certain life experiences and age. This once again emphasizes that everyone - big child. If the weight of years and excess husks are removed from him, then a charming baby will be born with his own childhood preferences and desires.

Another fundamental point of psychoanalysis - the presence of a wide variety of conflicts in the human mind. This means that in the psyche of every person there is a constant struggle between opposing forces. These are greed and generosity, good and evil, frivolity and thoroughness, vice and chastity. This list can be continued for a very long time. This must be remembered in order to better understand your inner world and reveal your true nature. After all, sometimes a person knows himself very poorly and cannot even imagine what he is capable of in a given situation.

The main task of Freud's theory is to create a universal technique that can help a person solve his life problems. Psychoanalysis tries to the best of its ability to cope with the burden of problems that weigh on the psyche and prevent each of us from feeling truly happy. Freudian methods suggest how to rethink your deepest desires. Outwardly, they regularly manifest themselves in everyday behavior, but it is very difficult to immediately identify them.

That's why people sometimes go to a psychoanalyst for years. Is this treatment beneficial? It all depends on the individual, on his desire to understand his inner world and change for the better. To have a positive result, you must first of all believe in the effectiveness of psychoanalysis, and therefore, in the Austrian himself who invented it. If you take all this lightly or with irony, then a positive outcome will never come, and Freud’s theory will remain a theory and will not gain practical value.

The great minds of our planet have been studying the structure of the human personality for many decades. But there are many different questions that scientists cannot answer. Why do people have dreams and what information do they carry? Why can events of past years cause a certain emotional state and provoke rash actions? Why does a person try to save a hopeless marriage and not let go of his half? In order to answer questions related to the topic of psychic reality, the technique of psychoanalysis is used. Freud's psychoanalytic theory is the main topic of this article.

The founder of psychoanalysis is Sigmund Freud

The theory of psychoanalysis has made a real revolution in the field of psychology. This method was created and put into operation by the great scientist from Austria, doctor of psychiatry Sigmund Freud. Early in his career, Freud worked closely with many eminent scientists. Physiology professor Ernst Brücke, founder of the cathartic method of psychotherapy Joseph Breuer, founder of the theory of the psychogenic nature of hysteria Jean-Marais Charcot are just a small part of the historical figures with whom Sigmund Freud worked together. According to Freud himself, the peculiar basis of his method arose precisely at the moment of collaboration with the above-mentioned people.

While engaged in scientific activities, Freud came to the conclusion that some clinical manifestations of hysteria cannot be interpreted from a physiological point of view. How to explain the fact that one part of the human body completely loses sensitivity, while neighboring areas still feel the influence of various stimuli? How to explain the behavior of people in a state of hypnosis? According to the scientist himself, the above questions are a kind of proof of the fact that only a part of mental processes are a manifestation of central nervous system reactions.

Many people have heard that a person immersed in a hypnotic state can be given a psychological setting, which he will definitely fulfill. It is quite interesting that if you ask such a person about the motives for his actions, he can easily find arguments explaining his behavior. Based on this fact, we can say that human consciousness independently selects arguments for completed actions, even in cases where there is no particular need for explanations.

During the years of Sigmund Freud's life, the fact that human behavior can depend on external factors and motives secret to consciousness was a real shock. It should be noted that it was Freud who introduced such concepts as “unconsciousness” and “subconsciousness”. The observations of this outstanding scientist made it possible to create a theory about psychoanalysis. Briefly, Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis can be described as the analysis of the human psyche in terms of the forces that move it. The term “force” should be understood as the motives, consequences and influence of past life experiences on future destiny.

What is the basis of psychoanalysis

According to Freud, human mental nature is continuous and consistent.. The appearance of any thoughts, desires and actions taken have their own reasons, which are characterized by unconscious or conscious motives. Thus, all actions performed have a direct reflection in the future of the individual.

Even in situations where emotional experiences seem unreasonable, there is a hidden connection between various events in human life.

Based on the above facts, Freud came to the conclusion that the human psyche consists of three different areas:

• consciousness;
• unconscious sphere;
• section of the preconscious.

The unconscious sphere includes basic instincts that are an integral part of human nature. This area also includes ideas and emotions that are repressed from consciousness. The reason for their repression may be the perception of such thoughts as prohibited, dirty and not worthy of existence. The unconscious area has no time frame. In order to explain this fact, it should be said that childhood experiences that enter the consciousness of an adult are perceived just as intensely as the first time.

The area of ​​preconsciousness includes part of the unconscious area, which in certain life situations becomes accessible to consciousness. The area of ​​consciousness contains everything that a person is aware of throughout his life. According to Freud's idea, the human psyche is driven by instincts and incentives that force an individual to perform various actions. Among all the instincts, 2 stimuli should be highlighted that have a dominant role:

1. Vital energy– libido.
2. Aggressive Energy- death instinct.

The classical psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud is aimed largely at the study of libido, the basis of which is sexual nature. Libido is a vital energy that is closely related to human behavior, experiences and emotions. In addition, the characteristics of this energy can be interpreted as the cause of the development of mental disorders.

Human personality contains three components:

1. "Super-ego"– Superego;
2. "I"– Ego;
3. "It"- Id.

“It” is inherent in every person from birth. This structure includes basic instincts and heredity. It cannot be described using logic, since “It” is characterized as disorganized and chaotic. It is important to note that the “It” has unlimited influence on the ego and superego.

“I” is one of the structures of the human personality that is in close contact with the people around us.“I” comes from “It” and appears at the moment when the child begins to perceive himself as an individual. “It” is a kind of feed for the “I,” and the “I” acts as a protective shell for basic instincts. In order to better understand the relationship between

"It" and "I", we should consider the example of sexual needs. “It” is a basic instinct, that is, the need for sexual contact. “I” determines under what conditions and when this contact will be realized. This means that “I” has the ability to restrain and control “It,” which is the key to internal psycho-emotional balance.

The “super-ego” originates in the “I” and is a kind of base where moral laws and rules are stored that limit the personality and prohibit certain actions. According to Freud, the task of the superego includes the construction of ideals, introspection and conscience.

All of the above structures have an important role in the development of human personality. They maintain a delicate balance between the danger associated with displeasure and the desire that leads to satisfaction.

The energy that originates in “It” is reflected in “It.” The task of the “Super-I” is to determine the boundaries of the action of this energy. It should be noted that the requirements of external reality may differ from the requirements of the “Super-I” and “It”. This contradiction is the cause of the development of internal conflicts. The following methods are used to resolve such conflicts:

• compensation;
• sublimation;
• defense mechanisms.

Based on the above, we can conclude that dreams are a recreation of human desires that cannot be realized in reality. Recurring dreams clearly indicate the presence of unrealized stimuli. Unfulfilled incentives interfere with self-expression and psychological growth.

Sublimation is a mechanism for redirecting sexual energy to those goals that are approved in society. Such goals include intellectual, social and creative activities. Sublimation is one of the protective mechanisms of the human psyche, and the energy created by it is the basis of civilization.

Anxiety caused by unsatisfied desires can be neutralized by directly addressing the internal conflict. Since internal energy is unable to find a way out, it is necessary to redirect it to overcome existing obstacles. In addition, it is necessary to reduce the consequences that these barriers can provide and compensate for unmet incentives. An example of such compensation is perfect hearing in people with visual impairments.

According to Freud, the human psyche is limitless.

A person who suffers from a lack of certain skills and wants to achieve success can achieve his goal through assertiveness and unmatched performance. But there are examples when the tension that arises can be distorted due to the operation of special protective mechanisms. Such mechanisms include:

• insulation;
• suppression;
• overcompensation;
• negation;
• projection;
• regression.

An example of how these defense mechanisms work should be considered in situations with unrequited love. The suppression of these feelings can be expressed by the phrase “I don’t remember this feeling,” the mechanism of rejection is expressed as “There is no love, and never was,” and isolation can be described as “I don’t need love.”

Summarizing

Freud's theory of psychoanalysis was briefly and clearly presented in this article. To summarize, we can say that this method is one of the attempts to understand those features of the human psyche that were previously incomprehensible. In the modern world, the term “psychoanalysis” is used in the following areas:

1. As the name of a scientific discipline.
2. A collective name for a set of events dedicated to research into the functioning of the psyche.
3. As a method of treating neurotic disorders.

Many modern scientists often criticize Sigmund Freud's theory. However, today, the concepts that were introduced by these scientists are a kind of basis for the science of psychology.

Sigmund Freud is an outstanding Austrian psychoanalyst who developed a unique method of studying personality - psychoanalysis. He was the first to explore the hidden part of the psyche - the unconscious, its role in human life. Freud's philosophy laid the basis for the development of new methods of studying the psyche and methods of psychological assistance.

Major discoveries

Freud made several fundamental discoveries in the field of psychology, introducing new trends and concepts. These include:

1. Unconscious. By the Unconscious, Freud understood a special area of ​​the psyche, the presence of which a person is not aware of. The unconscious seeks to subjugate the will and relieve the human individual from the pressure of moral standards.
2. Libido. Freud called it the engine of the individual's mental life. Libido activity affects ambitions and aspirations. Freud draws a parallel between sexual and social activity: a man’s libido is stronger than a woman’s, so he has a stronger need for sex and a desire for competition.
3. Interpretation of dreams. The unconscious constantly tries to overpower the will of the individual and sends him signals reminding him of suppressed desires. A person receives these signals in the form of dreams. To get rid of anxiety, you need to analyze dreams and find the true causes of discomfort.
4. Neuroticism. Freud grouped mental disorders caused by suppression of impulses into one group and called them nervous diseases or neuroticism. All people existing within European culture are susceptible to neuroticism, since they are distant from nature and are forced to constantly control their natural needs.

Not all contemporaries welcomed Freud's ideas; some criticized them. Karen Horney, an American psychoanalyst, in one of her works examined in detail Freud's theory of women's envy of the male penis and suggested that in fact a man is jealous of the presence of a uterus and the ability to reproduce, and the driving force of the human personality is not libido, but anxiety. Karen's bold views made her one of the iconic figures of neo-Freudianism.

Personality

Initially, the idea of ​​the human individual as a rational being was entrenched in philosophy. All actions were viewed as the result of a conscious decision.

This was the case before the discovery of the unconscious - a hidden component that guides the actions of an individual, but remains unconscious.

Freud suggested that the psyche of the individual is not whole. This is a structure consisting of separate parts:

• “I” is responsible for a conscious understanding of reality;
• “Super-I” - controls components formed under the influence of social norms;
• “It” stores repressed instincts and desires.

Every person has all the components. They constantly interact with each other. When he has any desire, the Conscious One evaluates it from the point of view of moral standards. If the fulfillment of a desire is fraught with a violation of these norms, it moves into the hidden part of the personality structure and remains there until it is satisfied. The more moral prohibitions an individual has (the stronger his will), the more unfulfilled desires he will have, hidden from the conscious outside the framework of the “It”. Constant control over one's aspirations causes neuroses - somatic manifestations expressed in physical and mental discomfort. Freudianism in philosophy has made it possible to make significant progress in the study of one of the main issues of knowledge - the essence of man.

Components of the psyche

The human psyche consists of the Conscious and the Unconscious. They are not equivalent: The unconscious tries to suppress consciousness and force the individual to follow his primary drives: Eros and Thanatos. Eros causes sexual desire, Thanatos – the need for death, one’s own and others’. If primary drives merge, a person becomes a maniac. He is unable to be guided by the principles of reality and sees the world as distorted, created to satisfy his desires. The need to achieve harmony between the components of the psyche forces him to commit murders and crimes of a sexual nature.

Functions of the unconscious

“It” or the Unconscious requires a person to satisfy needs. The unconscious is guided only by internal desires, it is selfish and inconsistent. According to Freud, the main human desires are the desire for reproduction and power, the desire to experience pleasure and avoid feelings of fear. If a person is guided in his actions by the Conscious, the Unconscious comes into conflict with him. There is emotional tension that needs to be eliminated. To do this, the psyche uses the following techniques:

1. Repression is the movement of desires into the “It” region, where they continue to influence the psyche, causing a feeling of unaccountable fear and anxiety.
2. Rationalization - searching for a more acceptable explanation for true desires, eliminating feelings of shame.
3. Sublimation - replacing instinctive drives with other activities: creativity, social work and others.
4. Regression is a person’s refusal to perceive reality, a return to a stage of personality development that could provide psychological comfort.

The constant conflict between the Conscious and the Unconscious leads to mental disorders. The main goal of psychoanalysis is to determine a person’s true desires and find compromise ways to realize them.

The origins of smoking addiction

Freud divided mental development into stages depending on the method of obtaining pleasure. He called the first oral - the stage of receiving pleasure using the mouth area. Babies, feeding on milk from the mother's breast, stimulate the oral cavity. In the process of satiation, they develop a feeling of satisfaction, and it is automatically associated with swallowing, chewing, and licking.

Freud believed that smoking addiction occurs in people who need to satisfy their needs, but have the ability to realize them. These people mentally return to the first stage of development and unconsciously strive to influence the oral cavity.

Freud once stated that women's addiction to smoking is a subconscious desire for oral sex. The scientist himself suffered from nicotine addiction, and his students immediately reminded him of this, hoping to confuse him. In response to this, Freud said his famous phrase, which later became a catchphrase: “Sometimes a cigar is just a cigar.”

The role of culture

For Sigmund Freud, philosophy was a way of analyzing the influence of culture on humans. In his opinion, culture is an external censor of personality, defining norms and boundaries of what is permissible. The process of cultural development is directly related to a feeling of satisfaction. The evolution of culture alienates man from nature, the satisfaction of primitive instincts, and makes him unhappy.

Limiting natural desires causes feelings of guilt. Freud was convinced that culture suppresses man's natural desires for aggression and destruction. His colleague and follower Carl Jung at the beginning of his career agreed with Freud, but later changed his mind. Jung examined in more detail the influence of libido on a person and his desire for creativity. Based on Freud's teachings, Jung created his own theory about archetypes - images that are formed in the collective unconscious and influence people's perceptions.

Oedipus complex and Electra complex

Freud's concept of philosophy includes a deep analysis of human sexual desires. The scientist believed that they are formed in childhood and manifest themselves as the Oedipus Complex or the Electra Complex.

The description of the complexes was based on Freud’s observations of child-parent relationships and ways of showing affection in boys and girls. He found that boys pay much more attention to their mother, strive to hug or kiss her, and require constant attention. If a mother prefers to spend more time with her husband rather than with her son, the boy becomes jealous. Unconsciously, he experiences sexual cravings for his mother and perceives his father as a rival. Girls demonstrate attachment to their father and show a negative reaction to his attitude towards their mother.

Great minds have been studying the human psyche for decades, but many questions still have no answers. What is hidden in the depths of a human being? Why do events that happened once in childhood still affect people to this day? What makes us make the same mistakes and hold on to hateful relationships with a death grip? Where do dreams originate, and what information is contained in them? These and many other questions regarding the mental reality of man can be answered by the revolutionary psychoanalysis, which has corrected many fundamentals, created by the outstanding Austrian scientist, neurologist and psychiatrist Sigmund Freud.

How did psychoanalysis come about?

At the very beginning of his career, Sigmund Freud managed to work with outstanding scientists of his time - physiologist Ernst Brücke, doctor Joseph Breuer practicing hypnosis, neurologist Jean-Marais Charcot and others. Freud developed some of the thoughts and ideas that arose at this stage in his further scientific works.

More specifically, the then young Freud was attracted by the fact that some of the symptoms of hysteria that manifested themselves in patients with it could not be interpreted from a physiological point of view. For example, a person might not feel anything in one area of ​​the body, despite the fact that sensitivity remained in neighboring areas. Another proof that not all mental processes can be explained by the reaction of the human nervous system or the act of his consciousness was observation of the behavior of people who were subjected to hypnosis.

Today everyone understands that if a person under hypnosis is given an order to do something, after waking up he will unconsciously strive to carry it out. And if you ask him why he wants to do this, he will be able to give quite adequate explanations for his behavior. Hence it turns out that the human psyche has the ability to independently create explanations for some actions, even if there is no need for them.

In the time of Sigmund Freud, the very understanding that people's actions can be controlled by reasons hidden from their consciousness became a shocking revelation. Before Freud's research, there were no such terms as “subconscious” or “unconscious” at all. And his observations became the starting point in the development of psychoanalysis - the analysis of the human psyche from the perspective of the forces driving it, as well as the causes, consequences and impact on a person’s subsequent life and the state of his neuropsychic health of the experiences he received in the past.

Basic ideas of psychoanalysis

The theory of psychoanalysis is based on Freud’s statement that there cannot be inconsistency or interruptions in the mental (if more conveniently, spiritual) nature of a person. Any thought, any desire and any action always has its own reason, determined by conscious or unconscious intention. Events that took place in the past influence future ones. And even if a person is convinced that any of his mental experiences have no basis, there are always hidden connections between some events and others.

Based on this, Freud divided the human psyche into three separate areas: the area of ​​consciousness, the area of ​​preconscious and the area of ​​the unconscious.

• To the area unconscious These include unconscious instincts that are never accessible to consciousness. This also includes thoughts, feelings and experiences repressed from consciousness, which are perceived by the human consciousness as having no right to exist, dirty or prohibited. The area of ​​the unconscious is not subject to time frames. For example, some memories from childhood, suddenly returning to consciousness, will be as intense as at the moment of their appearance.
• To the area preconscious refers to a part of the unconscious area that can become accessible to consciousness at any moment.
• Region consciousness includes everything that a person is aware of at every moment of his life.

The main active forces of the human psyche, according to Freud's ideas, are instincts - tensions that direct a person towards a goal. And these instincts include two dominant ones:

• Libido, which is the energy of life
• Aggressive energy which is the death instinct

Psychoanalysis examines, for the most part, libido, which is based on sexual nature. It represents living energy, the characteristics of which (appearance, quantity, movement, distribution) can interpret any mental disorders and characteristics of an individual’s behavior, thoughts and experiences.

Human personality, according to psychoanalytic theory, is represented by three structures:

• It (Id)
• I (Ego)
• Super-I (Super-Ego)

It (Id) is everything originally inherent in a person - heredity, instincts. The id is not influenced in any way by the laws of logic. Its characteristics are chaotic and disorganized. But the Id influences the Ego and the Super-Ego. Moreover, its impact is limitless.

I (Ego) is that part of a person’s personality that is in close contact with the people around him. The ego originates from the id from the very moment when the child begins to recognize himself as a person. The id feeds the ego, and the ego protects it like a shell. How the Ego and Id are interconnected can be easily illustrated by the need for sex: The Id could satisfy this need through direct sexual contact, but the Ego decides when, where and under what conditions this contact can be realized. The ego is capable of redirecting or restraining the Id, thereby being a guarantor of a person’s physical and mental health, as well as his safety.

Super-I (Super-Ego) grows from the Ego, being a repository of moral principles and laws, restrictions and prohibitions that are imposed on the individual. Freud argued that the superego performs three functions, which are:

• Function of conscience
• Self-monitoring function
• Function that shapes ideals

The id, the ego and the superego are necessary to jointly achieve one goal - maintaining a balance between the desire that leads to increased pleasure and the danger arising from displeasure.

The energy that arises in the Id is reflected in the I, and the Super-Ego determines the boundaries of the I. Considering that the demands of the Id, the Super-Ego and the external reality to which a person must adapt are often contradictory, this inevitably leads to intrapersonal conflicts. Conflicts within the individual are resolved through several methods:

• Dreams
• Sublimation
• Compensation
• Blocking by security mechanisms

Dreams may be a reflection of desires that are not realized in real life. Dreams that recur may be pointers to a certain need that has not been fulfilled, and which may serve as an obstacle to a person's free self-expression and psychological growth.

Sublimation is the redirection of libidinal energy to goals approved by society. Often these goals are creative, social or intellectual activities. Sublimation is a form of successful protection, and sublimated energy creates what we are all accustomed to calling the word “civilization.”

The state of anxiety that arises from an unsatisfied desire can be neutralized by directly addressing the problem. Thus, energy that cannot find a way out will be directed to overcoming obstacles, to reducing the consequences of these obstacles, and to compensation what is missing. An example is perfect hearing, which develops in blind or visually impaired people. The human psyche is capable of doing the same: for example, a person suffering from a lack of ability, but having a strong desire to achieve success, can develop unsurpassed performance or unparalleled assertiveness.

However, there are also situations in which the tension that appears can be distorted or rejected by special defense mechanisms such as overcompensation, regression, projection, isolation, rationalization, denial, suppression and others. For example, unrequited or lost love can be suppressed (“I don’t remember any love”), rejected (“There was no love”), rationalized (“That relationship was a mistake”), isolated (“I don’t need love”), projected, attributing your feelings to others (“People don’t know how to truly love”), overcompensating (“I prefer open relationships”), etc.

Brief summary

Psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud is the greatest attempt to come to an understanding and description of those components of human mental life that were incomprehensible before Freud. The very term “psychoanalysis” is currently used to describe:

• Scientific discipline
• A set of measures to study mental processes
• Methods for treating neurotic disorders

Freud's work and his psychoanalysis are often criticized even today, but the concepts that he introduced (Id, Ego, Super-Ego, defense mechanisms, sublimation, libido) are understood and applied in our time by both scientists and simply educated people. Psychoanalysis is reflected in many sciences (sociology, pedagogy, ethnography, anthropology and others), as well as in art, literature and even cinema.