Psychodiagnostics(Greek psyche - soul and diagnostikos - capable of recognizing) - a field of psychological science and at the same time the most important form of psychological practice associated with the development and use of various methods for recognizing individual psychological characteristics and prospects for human development.

Psychodiagnostic tasks can be viewed from three perspectives. Firstly, in a situation where the client himself turns to a clinical psychologist with a request for a psychodiagnostic examination (he willingly cooperates, tries to follow all instructions as accurately as possible without the intention of “embellishing” himself or falsifying the results). Secondly, in a situation of examination. In this case, the client, undergoing examination, knows about this and tries to pass a kind of “exam” (he can control his behavior and answers to obtain a result acceptable to himself; in some cases, it is possible to simulate, for example, a mental disorder). Thirdly, in a situation in which it is not strictly specified who and how will use the diagnostic data. In this case, the following situations are possible: (a) the data is used by a related specialist to make a non-psychological diagnosis. This situation is typical for using the results of a psychodiagnostic examination in medicine. The psychologist is not responsible for either the diagnosis or the treatment prescribed by the doctor. (b) Data from a psychodiagnostic examination are used by the diagnostic psychologist himself to make a psychological diagnosis, but they will be used by specialists of a different profile.

This is, for example, the situation when identifying the psychological causes of school failure. (c) Data from a psychodiagnostic examination are used by the diagnostic psychologist himself to develop, for example, correctional programs. (d) Diagnostic data is used by the examinee himself for the purposes of self-development, correction of his behavior, etc. In this case, the diagnostic psychologist is responsible not only for the quality of the psychodiagnostic examination performed, but also for the list of data that he considers possible to transfer to the client ( It is important to observe the principle of “do no harm”).

In his work, a diagnostic psychologist uses various methods, techniques, and diagnostic procedures, which, before being used, undergo empirical testing (their validity, reliability, etc. is determined) in special studies.

There are a number of bases for the classification of psychodiagnostic methods, one of them is the measure of “objectivity - subjectivity” that its results have (for “objective methods” the influence of the diagnostic psychologist on the interpretation of the results is minimal; for “subjective methods” the results of interpretation, on the contrary, will be largely depend on the experience of the diagnostic psychologist). In accordance with the classification under consideration, the following groups of psychodiagnostic techniques are distinguished (A. G. Shmelev, 1996): 1) Psychophysiological techniques. Diagnostically significant indicators are recorded using data from various devices. Such indicators may include: respiration, pulse, galvanic skin reactions, muscle tone, etc. However, these are not behavioral reactions themselves, but their physiological indicators. Therefore, from the point of view of psychological indicators, this is an indirect type of diagnosis and is most often used to diagnose a person’s functional states.

2) Hardware behavioral techniques. In the case of using this class of techniques, the diagnosed parameters are read from the scales of the corresponding devices. Diagnosed parameters can be: elementary mental functions (for example, a sense of balance, psychomotor coordination), properties of the nervous system, psychological compatibility and operability (“Gorbov’s homeostat”), etc. A special case of instrumental methods are simulator tests for diagnosing certain professional skills. With their help, real conditions of professional activity are simulated.

3) Objective tests. A psychological test is a standardized instrument designed to objectively measure one or more aspects of personality. The most significant features of the tests are: (a) standardization of presentation and processing of results, (b) independence of the results from the influence of the experimental itself, (c) the situation and the influence of the diagnostic psychologist, (d) comparability of individual data with normative ones.

Objective tests include those methods in which, in accordance with sociocultural norms, objectively “correct” and “incorrect” answers are possible. Test results are processed using the key specified by the relevant standard. Most intelligence tests, special ability tests, achievement tests,

4) Tests - questionnaires (involve a set of points regarding which the subject makes judgments using given answer options). The items of the questionnaire test can appeal either directly to the subject’s experience, or to opinions and judgments in which his personal experience or experiences are indirectly manifested.

There are questionnaires and personality questionnaires. Questionnaires provide an opportunity to obtain information about the subject that does not directly reflect his personal characteristics (this could be biographical data or certain attitudes, for example, attitude towards a certain social group, etc.). Personality questionnaires are focused on measuring the personal characteristics of the subject. Among such questionnaires there are several groups:

(a) Typological questionnaires (allow you to attribute the subject to one or another type, distinguished by qualitatively unique manifestations), for example, the questionnaire of G. Yu. Eysenck. The Minnesota Multidisciplinary Personality Inventory (MMPI) is often included in this group of methods.

(b) Personality trait questionnaires (allow you to measure the severity of certain personality traits). One of the most common is the 16-factor personality questionnaire by R. Cattell.

(c) Questionnaires of motives, values, attitudes, interests.

5) Subjective scaling technique (the subject, using the scales proposed to him or those that he proposes, himself evaluates external objects or concepts, and conclusions are drawn about himself). So, in particular, to diagnose cognitive style, the “Gardner free sorting” technique is used (the subject evaluates objects on a nominal scale of similarity): the more classes of objects in the free classification he invented, the more differentiated his conceptual system is considered.

6) Projective techniques. The principle of projection underlying these techniques is based on the fact that in various manifestations of an individual - in his creativity, in the interpretation of various events, preferences, etc., his personality is revealed, including hidden, unconscious motives, aspirations, experiences, conflicts.

Projective techniques involve creating a fairly uncertain situation for the subject, leaving him freedom of action (within the framework of instructions), which allows the choice of answer within a very wide range. Answers can be either whole pictures or text and cannot be interpreted as correct or incorrect. The responses of the subject are of value to the diagnostic psychologist as such, as individual manifestations of his personal characteristics, about which conclusions are drawn.

The following groups of projective techniques are distinguished (Frank, cited by E. T. Sokolova, 1980):

Structuring techniques. The content of the subject’s work is giving meaning to the material, its structuring. These are the Rorschach inkblot test, cloud test, three-dimensional projection test, etc.

Construction techniques: creating a whole from individual parts (MAPS, world test and its various modifications, etc.).

Interpretation techniques: the subject interprets the events of the proposed situations, images (TAT, Rosanzweig frustration test, Szondi test, etc.).

Complementation techniques (unfinished sentences, unfinished stories, Jung's association test, etc.).

Catharsis techniques: creative activity of the subject in specially organized conditions. This is psychodrama, projective play, etc.

Methods for studying expression: analysis of handwriting, speech communication, etc.

Methods for studying creative products (human figure drawing test - Goodenow and Machover variants, K. Koch tree drawing test, house drawing test, etc.) Using these groups of methods, the most essential personality properties are identified in their interdependence and integrity of functioning.

7) Standardized analytical observation. The diagnostic psychologist knows in advance what facts in the behavior of the observed object to register and how to evaluate latent diagnostic variables based on these facts.

8) Content analysis (content analysis). In observational material, the frequencies of occurrence of certain parameters are calculated, and then psychological conclusions are drawn based on the ratio of these frequencies.

9) Participant observation followed by rating scaling. It is often not possible to organize monitoring with the involvement of independent observers. In such a situation, the participants in the process under consideration themselves may be involved in making judgments about the objects of observation. The measure of the severity of the assessed property is provided by a gradation of subjective assessment on a certain rating scale (five-point, seven-point, etc.).

10) Psychological conversation (interview). This method seems simple, natural and effective. In reality, the interviewer has an impact on the subject, which can be considered the very questions he asks. The success of the conversation depends on whether or not trust is established between the interviewer and the interviewee. Conversation belongs to the class of interactive methods (methods of direct influence).

11) Role-playing is a special type of interactive methods, especially effective for diagnosing children. In play, the child exhibits his inherent behavioral traits. However, the rules of the game, the distribution of roles and the behavior of specific participants can have a serious impact on the child, which leads to changes in attitudes, behavioral tactics, etc. Methods 6 to 11 are subjective methods of expert assessment. A diagnostic psychologist uses a certain procedure to evaluate either the behavior of the subject or the products of his activity. The assessment results turn out to depend on his qualifications. The most “vulnerable” method in this sense is psychological conversation. Traditionally, there are also general and private psychodiagnostics.

I. M. Karlinskaya, I. B. Khanina

Psychodiagnostics: origin, essence, goals and methods

Psychodiagnostics- a branch of psychology that studies methods for determining the psychological characteristics of a person in order to most fully reveal his inner potential in all spheres of life.

History of psychodiagnostics. The emergence of psychodiagnostics as an independent field of knowledge occurs at the end of the 19th century. This is due to a clear awareness of the need to assess the individual psychological characteristics of people in order to find solutions to various kinds of psychological problems. Thus, it can be argued that psychological diagnostics separated from psychology under the influence of practical requirements.

The initial source of the development of psychodiagnostics was experimental psychology; its foundations are laid in all psychodiagnostic methods. The study of mental phenomena and facts within the framework of the exact methods of the natural sciences, the increased influence of natural science on the analysis of mental phenomena served as an additional incentive for the development of psychodiagnostics.

It is believed that experimental psychology originated in Germany in 1878; its creator is considered to be Wilhelm Wundt, who founded the world's first laboratory of experimental psychology, the main task of which was to study human sensations and the accompanying motor reactions, color perception.

In 1883, Francis Galton included the measurement of hearing, vision and verbal associative reaction time in the science of anthropometrics, which he created, in addition to measuring tests of human physical parameters. However, F. Galton made a much more significant contribution to the development of psychodiagnostics a little later, having invented the concept of “test”.

Despite the development of psychodiagnostics as a result of the use of experiments, the study of man is not based on a purely logical development of the experimental method. The study of man was influenced by the needs of pedagogy, medicine and industrial production.

Various scientific psychological schools responded to these requests in different ways and presented the role of psychodiagnostics in the process of studying personality in their own way. The most noteworthy is the look at the psychodiagnostics of schools whose methods are directly related to the principles of behavioral psychology (behaviorism). The peculiarity of behaviorism was the recognition of the relationship between the external environment and the organism, while the organism, succumbing to the influence of the external environment, reacts to it and strives to change the current situation in a favorable direction for it and, ultimately, adapts to the external environment. Behavior in the behaviorism model is understood as a set of reactions of the body to stimuli. In accordance with this, the main goal of psychodiagnostics was to record human behavior. As a result of pursuing this goal, test methods were developed.

Purpose and application of psychodiagnostics. Psychodiagnostics is used in such areas of practice as: 1) psychotherapeutic assistance and consultation; 2) designing a person’s possible social behavior (for example, the degree of fidelity in marriage); 3) analysis of the degree of influence of changes in environmental conditions on the psychological state of a person; 4) career guidance, consultation in personnel selection; 5) forensic psychiatric examination; 6) organization of education and training; 7) analysis of interpersonal relationships and personality psychology. The main goal of psychodiagnostics is to help people, during times of psychological stress, make the right decision with the least loss for their nervous system. It is to this goal that thousands of people who have embarked on the path of serving psychodiagnostics devote their lives.

Why is psychodiagnostics needed and how high is the likelihood of situations requiring the help of psychodiagnostics? A person can minimize the likelihood of making a wrong decision in two cases:

1) Make absolutely no decisions (in other words, sit on your hands). This option is not suitable for us, as it makes it impossible to achieve success. It is impossible to achieve anything without taking action.

2) Be a truly highly qualified professional in all areas of activity that a person encounters on the path to success. However, as you know, a person is very rarely, almost never, equally knowledgeable in all areas of life. But life is a fickle lady, and a person never knows for sure in what area he will have to implement his own knowledge. And this applies not only to work. Take the example of men who have recently become young dads - how many of them are absolutely ready for this?

Unpreparedness to face unexpected problems gives rise to fear, psychological constriction and suppression of initiative. In order to restore a person’s self-confidence, relieve him of the fear of the unknown, and change a falsely constructed model of human behavior, psychodiagnostics exists.

If we break down the term “psychodiagnostics” into its components, it is not difficult to guess that the subject of research in psychodiagnostics is: a) the soul of a person, his inner world; b) a detailed analysis of this inner world. The term “diagnosis” is defined as the recognition of a person's deviation from his normal development and functioning. In order to identify these deviations, a psychodiagnostician analyzes the reasons, both internal and external, that force a person to act this way and not otherwise, and also analyzes the mental characteristics of a person during the study.

The problems of psychodiagnostics are solved in various ways. The first way is to observe a person in the process of providing him with psychotherapeutic assistance. The second way is to observe an individual in the process of his life, studying his motives and reactions. Both of these methods are excellent for studying basic information about a person, but they have some disadvantages, such as significant labor input, are not always available and applicable, and can provide distorted information about a person (in cases of short-term observations). Due to these shortcomings in psychodiagnostics, special techniques have been widespread that allow, within a short period of research, to obtain all the necessary information about the mental characteristics of an individual. In addition, the advantages of these methods include the ability to collect not only general information about a person, but also about his characteristics, personal characteristics (intelligence, self-esteem, etc.). It is these techniques that will be discussed further.

Methods of psychodiagnostics. All psychodiagnostic methods are divided depending on the approach to studying a person (see Fig. 1). There are objective, subjective and projective approaches. With an objective approach, the diagnosis of a person’s mental characteristics is determined on the basis of the methods used by a person when performing an activity and its effectiveness. According to the subjective approach, the analysis of mental processes is carried out by self-assessment of a person based on the information that the person provided about himself. With this approach, human behavior in certain situations is assessed. With a projective approach, the diagnosis of the psyche is carried out on the basis of the interaction of a person and external neutral material, which becomes the object of attention due to its uncertainty.

Figure 1 - Psychodiagnostic methods depending on the approach

The objective approach presents two main types of methods - methods for testing intelligence and diagnosing personal abilities. The intelligence testing technique is aimed at determining a person’s mental development, and the personality ability diagnostic technique is designed to determine a person’s abilities that are not directly related to intelligence (the so-called character traits). The use of diagnostics of intelligence and character traits at the same time allows us to get an idea of ​​the mental motives that guide a person when making decisions regarding his actions.

Diagnostics of the level of human intelligence development is represented by “intelligence tests”. The main types of intelligence tests are:

1. Culturally Fluent Intelligence Test (CFIT). This test was invented by British psychologist R. Cattell in 1958. A distinctive feature of this test was the ability to diagnose the level of intellectual development of a person, regardless of the influence of environmental factors. An interesting example of this test is diagnosing the level of intelligence among children and adults without higher education. All tasks in the test are presented in the form of graphic images. The test consists of two parts with 4 subtests. Each test taker is given a test form with tasks, each task contains five answer options, and there is only one correct answer - this is what the test taker must choose. A strictly defined time is given for each part of the test (see Table 1).

After this time, the experimenter asks the subject to put the pen aside and begins counting points by checking the selected answer options with the key. According to statistics, the average IQ level is achieved when you score 90-110 points. An indicator above this mark is a sign of the presence of mental talent in a person; an indicator below this level, on the contrary, indicates that the person still has room to grow intellectually.

2. WISC (Wechsler Test). The IQ scale was developed by David Wexler in 1939. This test diagnoses general intelligence and its components - verbal and non-verbal intelligence. Like the CFIT test, the Wechsler test is divided into 2 parts - the first part contains 6 verbal subtests, and the second contains 5 non-verbal subtests. Verbal subtests consist of diagnosing intelligibility, awareness, the ability to reproduce numerical series and finding similarities between objects and images. Non-verbal subtests include identification of the missing picture, addition of figures, encryption, addition of figures. Each test contains from 10 to 30 tasks, the complexity of which increases as they are completed. Each of the subtests is assessed in points and the final result is given (scale scores). In the process of calculating the result, each completed task is analyzed in detail, the ratio of verbal and non-verbal aspects of intelligence is determined, and the final IQ level is determined. Analysis of qualitative and quantitative assessment of task completion allows us to identify gaps in the intellectual development of one or a couple of aspects of human activity and outline methods for eliminating them. A low score on any of the subtests indicates a violation in the development of one of the aspects of human activity. The classification of scores and their corresponding IQ levels are given below:

130 points and above - a very high IQ level
. 120-129 points - high IQ level
. 110-119 points - good normal IQ level
. 90-109 points - average IQ level
. 80-89 points - low level
. 70-79 points - limit zone
. 69 points and below - mental deviation.

3. Progressive Raven matrices. This technique for diagnosing intelligence was presented in 1936 by the famous English psychologist John Raven. The author of the technique was absolutely convinced that the best method for measuring the “g factor” (the factor of a person’s general intelligence) was to find relationships between abstract figures. When creating the methodology, the main task of the psychologist was to invent tests that were easy to understand and convenient for processing the results, and at the same time were theoretically justified.

At the beginning of the test, the subject is provided with drawings with figures interconnected by a certain dependence, while one of the figures is missing and is given as one of the answer options for the test among 4-8 other figures. The subject’s task is to determine the logical sequence between the figures and select the correct option that corresponds to the pattern of arrangement of the figures, as well as reflect the number of the selected option in the questionnaire.

The Raven test consists of five blocks containing 60 tables. With each transition to the next block the task becomes more complicated.

Block A contains tasks to complete the missing part of the image by choosing an option among those given in the table. Completing the task requires the subject to analyze the components of the image and find similar features with one of the fragments, and then, using imagination, combine the image with the fragment into one whole.

In block B, the subject is required to be able to draw an analogy between pairs of figures. When solving block B, it is necessary to find the principle according to which the figure is constructed, and based on this, select the missing fragment.

Block C is based on the principle of changes in figures. New figures become more complex as they develop, filling them with new elements. The subject’s task is to determine the principle according to which the figure is filled with new elements.

Block D is built on the principle of regrouping figures, and consists of finding this regrouping.

Block E contains the task of decomposing a complete image into individual elements.

The time to complete this test is 20 minutes; completing tasks beyond this time is unacceptable. Choosing the correct answer to a task earns the subject one point. At the end of the test, the scores are summed up and conclusions are drawn regarding the degree of human intelligence development - with a score of 0-20 points, the development is assessed as very weak, bordering on idiocy, and with a score of 140 points or more - as a high level of intelligence development.

4. Amthauer Structure of Intelligence Test. This test was developed to determine the general level of abilities, since professional diagnostics experienced certain difficulties. When creating the test, Amthauer relied on the opinion that intelligence is nothing more than a substructure in the overall structure of personality, which has a close relationship with the emotional sphere of a person’s life, his interests and needs. The structure of the test consists of 9 sections, each of which contains 16-20 tasks. The time to complete the tasks of each section is strictly specified - from 6 to 10 minutes, depending on the complexity of the section. In such a short period of time, a person is unlikely to have time to complete all the tasks, and therefore the optimal strategy is to quickly move from a task to which the person is not sure of the correct answer to the next task.

The Amthauer Intelligence Structure Test allows you to calculate results at three levels:

A) General level of intelligence. This indicator is determined by summing the results for each section and further converting the indicator into a standard indicator. Despite the universality of the method for calculating the general level of intelligence, certain of its features in relation to the subjects should be taken into account, namely:

Test results depend on the cultural and social developmental conditions of the subjects;

The success of testing is influenced by the level of education a person has received. Thus, a person who has received a higher education will, with a significant degree of probability, show a better result than a subject who graduated from high school.

In this regard, it would be more appropriate to compare people with the same level of education;

The test assumes quick thinking as one of the key factors for successfully passing the test;

The test is more suitable for subjects with a mathematical and natural science mindset than for those with a humanitarian mindset.

B) Determining a group of test sections that are close to each other according to the factorization principle. For example, all sections can be divided into the following groups:

Math sections (5 and 6). High results in this section are shown by subjects with a strong mathematical mindset.

Verbal sections (1-4). They assume the skills to effectively operate with words and phrases. People who perform best in these sections have verbal thinking. Focus on learning foreign languages ​​and social sciences.

Theoretical (2 and 4) and practical (1 and 3) abilities. To obtain more correct test results, these sections should be compared in pairs.

Structural sections (7 and 8). Assumes a high level of development of spatial abilities. Good performance in this group indicates general scientific talent and the practical orientation of the human mind.
C) Determination of effectiveness for each section.

Section 1 assumes that a person has a significant store of knowledge. The leading role is played by a person’s ability to analyze a given task and find ways to solve it. This section contains questions from various fields of knowledge, including the school curriculum. The section is designed to interest a person and make him want to go through the remaining sections to the end.

Section 2. The point of this section is to select an “extra” word from the five given, which are not related to the other words in meaning. In the process of choosing an extra word, a person analyzes the common and different features of words. Subsequently, objects are compared. The test is designed to identify a person’s abilities for analytical activity, the ability to determine the relationships between compared objects.

In section 3, based on the identified relationship between two words, the test taker should select one word from 5-7 words that will complement the meaning of the relationship of the first two words. The key to successfully passing this section of the test is that a person has the ability to generalize, and the presence of a large amount of knowledge fades into the background. This test provides information about a person's potential.

Section 4. A person is given a pair of words, and he must identify common features in them. Words, as a rule, have many common characteristics, which makes it possible to divide them into primary and secondary ones. Accordingly, if the subject names more primary signs, he will be assigned a larger number of points. The test is aimed at determining the test subject's ability to abstract; the presence of a large vocabulary is one of the key factors for success when passing this section.

Section 5. The basis of this section is arithmetic tasks. These tasks involve the achievement of a clearly formulated goal, and therefore require the subject to have a developed ability to make inferences. Also, to achieve a high result on the test, a person must have analytical skills, because the initial conditions of the task can be revised, and the person solving the problem will need to identify its main elements and systematize them. In the future, a strategy for solving a mathematical problem should be developed, after which, based on the solution strategy, specific operations are identified, the implementation of which allows you to achieve the goal. The quality of these operations largely depends on the computing abilities of the subject. Section 5 perfectly demonstrates a person’s abilities for mathematical analysis and synthesis, mathematical literacy, and logical thinking.

Section 6. The task is to find a number that will serve as a logical continuation of the previous series of numbers. For example, the logical continuation for a series of numbers: 2, 4, 8, 16 is the number “32”. To correctly solve the task, the test taker must first discover the rule by which a logical series of numbers is constructed. To successfully solve a task, the ability to perform analytical and synthetic activities, as well as the ability to generalize based on the analysis of the relationships between numbers in a series, is important.

Section 7. Involves working with cut parts of one whole figure. Several parts of the figure, which are its elements, are placed in front of the subject, and the person should assemble the figure. The main objective of the test is to diagnose a person’s abilities for spatial and logical thinking, as well as the ability to operate with two-dimensional images.

Section 8. A person is provided with a three-dimensional drawing of a cube and several samples of the same cube. The subject's task is to determine which of the cubes is in the rotated state and which is in the inverted state. Like section 7, this section also determines a person's ability to operate with spatial images.

Section 9. The test subject is asked to memorize a number of words, and then answer the questions posed. This section distinguishes two stages of testing - the memorization stage and the reproduction stage. The purpose of this section is to diagnose the level of development of the subject’s short-term memory.

Word "psychodiagnostics" probably familiar to everyone. All kinds of psychological tests can be found on the Internet, in newspapers and magazines, books... But are they all related to psychodiagnostics?

Psychodiagnostics(Greek psyche - soul and diagnostikos - capable of recognizing) - a field of psychological science and at the same time the most important form of psychological practice associated with the development and use of various methods for recognizing individual psychological characteristics and prospects for human development.

Psychodiagnostics how a separate direction emerged at the beginning of the twentieth century from experimental psychology. The term psychodiagnostics appeared in 1921 and belongs to a Swiss psychologist Hermann Rorschach.

For a long time, psychodiagnostics was identified with testing. However, psychodiagnostics became firmly established in psychology after the use of not testing, not psychometry, but projective methods that did not make a direct diagnosis.

The purpose of psychodiagnostics is to collect information about the characteristics of the human psyche.

Types and methods of psychodiagnostics

There are many classifications of psychological diagnostics. According to the criterion of formalization (exact adherence to instructions, uniformity of the procedure, structure of the methodology itself), the following are distinguished:

• Highly formalized techniques— questionnaires, questionnaires, tests;
• Less formalized techniques— observation, conversation, interview, analysis of activity products.

Typically, both types of these techniques are used in combination to create a more complete picture of a person’s personality.

Depending on the goals and directions of the research psychological diagnostics happen:

• diagnostics of mental development (compliance with age standards for levels of development of memory, attention, intelligence, etc.);
• neuropsychological diagnostics;
• diagnosis of mental conditions (level of anxiety, aggression, etc.);
• diagnosis of personality traits;
• professional diagnostics (career guidance, professional suitability);
• diagnostics of psychophysiological characteristics (such as temperament, performance, etc.)
• and others.

It is important to note that psychodiagnostics not only gives an idea of ​​the current state of a person, but also indicates "zone of proximal development"(term by L.S. Vygotsky), i.e. direction of growth and development, based on the individual characteristics of a person. The psychological report also provides specific recommendations for this.

Psychological diagnostics can take place in a group or individually. The psychologist, depending on the goals and individual characteristics of the client, can offer a questionnaire or test with an answer form, draw a person or other drawing, complete a sentence, or even compose a fairy tale.

For whom?

Psychodiagnostics can be useful in completely different contexts and life situations. For example:

• if you want to know yourself better, find directions for growth and development;
• if you need to determine the child’s readiness for school, as well as assess his mental development in accordance with age standards;
• to help a teenager decide on a career choice (career guidance);
• to assess the degree of cohesion and structure of the team (sociometry), etc.

The psychologist conducting the diagnosis operates within the framework of Code of Ethics, which includes the principle of objectivity, confidentiality, professional training, etc. Therefore, you should not be afraid of disclosing information and making “terrible” diagnoses.

Psychodiagnostics can be for you both the first step in working with a psychologist or psychotherapist, and an independent tool on the path of self-knowledge!

Today, most researchers recognize that psychodiagnostics as a field of psychological knowledge is aimed at development of methods for recognizing individual psychological properties of a person. It should be remembered that psychodiagnostics deals not only with tests, but also with qualitative assessments personality. It is also important to take into account that psychodiagnostics is not an auxiliary, serving discipline, but a full-fledged science that studies the nature of individual differences. Taking into account different interpretations of the concept of “psychodiagnostics”, its following definition is proposed (L. Burlachuk, 2002):

Psychodiagnostics is a field of psychological science that develops the theory, principles and tools for assessing and measuring the personal psychological properties of an individual.

During the period of development of psychodiagnostics, it developed main areas application of psychological techniques, which can be defined as areas of general psychodiagnostics. Education and medicine were the first to show interest in methods of studying personality and intelligence, which led to the emergence of the corresponding areas of psychodiagnostics - educational And clinical . In addition to the mentioned areas of psychodiagnostics, it is necessary to note professional psychodiagnostics , without which career guidance and selection are impossible.

Diagnostics(from the Greek "dia" and "gnosis") is literally understood as "knowledge that distinguishes." The term “diagnostics” is actively used today not only in psychology, but also in pedagogy, medicine and other fields of science.

According to the modern general scientific concept, term "diagnostics " understand status recognition specific object or system by quickly registration of its essential parameters and further assignment to a specific diagnostic category with the aim of forecast her behavior and making decisions about the necessary influences to this behavior in the desired direction.

In this context psychodiagnostics should be considered important means ensuring the so-called " feedback" - a means of information support for any influence, i.e. any influence should begin with the collection of psychodiagnostic information and end with a repeat diagnostic examination.

Diagnostic signs- these are separate externally expressed signs of an object diagnostics that turn out to be informative for classifying an object to a certain diagnostic category. Signs can be directly observed (for example: certain behavioral manifestations, communication habits, etc.).

Diagnostic categories- this is a wide class of diagnostic objects (in psychodiagnostics - a class of people), to whom a single diagnosis is made - diagnostic conclusion. In psychodiagnostics, this is a conclusion about the levels of mental development, personal maturity, psychological adaptability, etc.

Unlike diagnostic signs, categories hidden from direct observation. Therefore, in social sciences they are usually called latent variables. For quantitative categories the name " diagnostic factors".

Diagnostic factors- these are deep generalized features, according to which diagnostic categories differ from each other.

The result diagnostics is diagnostic output , which provides transition from observed features to the level of hidden categories. The particular difficulty of psychodiagnostics lies in the fact that there are no one-to-one relationships between variables and categories. For example: one student teaches in order to get an “excellent” - thus, the student has formed a cognitive need, another tries to get the same grade for material reward.

For an unambiguous conclusion, one symptom (one action), as a rule, is not enough. It is necessary to analyze the complex of symptoms. Tests provide identification of a variety of symptoms (signs).

Test in psychodiagnostics, it is a series of the same type of standardized short tests to which the subject is subjected. Different test tasks are designed to elicit different symptoms in the test subject, which are associated with the latent factors that are being tested.

Sum of test results(tests) indicates level measured factor (here we mean the scheme for calculating the test score).

It is necessary to distinguish practical examination And scientific differential diagnostic study, which are the most important concepts in modern testological culture.

Survey- This is the use of a ready-made, already developed test. Its result is information about the mental properties of a particular person (subject).

Differential diagnostic study is a complex of theoretical and experimental works aimed at forming mental property concepts, which is measured (a hidden factor that affects the efficiency and nature of activity), to identify diagnostic signs (empirical indicators) from which information about a given property can be obtained; this is the creation and testing of a method for recording identified signs.

Thus, the modern concept of " psychodiagnostics "closely related to the concept" psychological testing ", but cannot be reduced to it, because, in addition to test(standardized), there are expert (based on qualitative assessments) – those that are also commonly called “clinical psychodiagnostic methods”: conversation, poorly standardized interview, projective methods, etc.

Standardized quantitative tests more efficient in cases where it is necessary to obtain at least approximate data about a whole group of people in a short time and at the same time make a strictly alternative decision, which requires a quantitative justification of its reliability (for example: to accept or not to accept for training, work, draw a conclusion about intellectual development, etc.). In addition, standardized methods better protected from possible methodological errors, which arise due to the low psychodiagnostic qualifications of the performer.

Expert methods more effective in the hands of experienced, professionally trained psychodiagnostic psychologists. They allow penetrate deeper and more accurately into the life situation of a particular person. Expert methods are especially effective when, based on their results, the psychologist himself provides psychological assistance (conducts correction, therapy, training, etc.).

Today, both approaches are actively used, which are complementary. What they have in common is that diagnosis made on the basis of analysis of primary psychodiagnostic data (signs). Technological methods for obtaining this primary data And logical rules for their synthesis into diagnostic categories- this is the main subject and at the same time a product of the development of scientific psychodiagnostics.

Most logically, strictly in a generalized formalized form, these logical and methodological principles displayed in psychometrics.

Psychometrics– mathematized technology for creating standardized, measuring diagnostic techniques. Modern psychometrics requires that any test that purports to be scientific must meet the necessary psychometric properties. These are the properties of validity, reliability, and representativeness. In psychometrics, there are justified certain rules and methods for measuring the specified psychometric properties of tests, with the help of which the degree of scientificity of any proposed test is monitored.

So, psychodiagnostics in psychology serves as a kind a bridge between science and practice: the science of individual psychological differences (differential psychology) and the practice of making a psychological diagnosis. As a psychological discipline, psychodiagnostics performs a role similar to that performed by technical metrology in the physical and technical sciences or medical diagnostics in the biomedical sciences.

As A. Bodalev notes, system structure of psychodiagnostics, as an integrative scientific and technological discipline, for simplicity figuratively can be imagined like this:

"head"psychodiagnostics form scientific theories in the field of differential psychology;

"T catch"psychodiagnostics forms a repertoire specific techniques(test and rating scales);

"legs" - this is a mathematized test design technology(psychometrics);

"hands" - This applied models and methods practical psychology (psychological and pedagogical theories, professional selection, provision of psychological assistance, etc.), which indicate the scheme for using psychodiagnostic techniques to solve specific problems (diagnosticograms).

The central and most universal concept of differential psychology is the concept "mental properties" . To understand the content of this concept, the following definition is proposed (A.G. Shmelev, 1996).

Mental properties, stable over time, are personality traits . In cases where the individual’s achievement of a normatively specified result depends on the level of development of a certain trait, then we talk about the abilities of the individual. When the level of development of a trait does not affect the achievement of a result, then we talk about a style trait. Traits that influence the direction of activity are called motivational.

Mental properties, not stable over time, form what we call mental conditions . Thus, taking into account a certain simplification, we can say that all the hidden factors that psychodiagnostics is aimed at are either abilities, or stylistic or motivational personality traits, or mental states.

Methodology(test), used in psychodiagnostics, can be aimed at identifying general or specific personality traits (for example, identifying the general level of cognitive needs or areas of interest). That's why understanding the level of universality the diagnostic categories specified in the methodology are necessary for reasonable choice of forecast depth.

Since the result of diagnostic work is a psychological diagnosis, it is necessary to consider this concept. Would wrong to think, that this is a conclusion about mental illness.

Question 1: The concept of psychodiagnostics.

The term “psychodiagnostics” was first used by the Swiss psychologist and psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach (1984-1922). In 1921 he published the book “Psychodiagnostics”.

The term "mental test" was first used by James Cattell in 1890 (USA).

The first psychological diagnostic techniques (“boards” by Seguin, 1831) took place in a clinic for mentally retarded children.

Using the concepts “testing” and “psychodiagnostics” as synonyms; gradual transition to a new, more correct name “psychological assessment”.

Psychodiagnostics is the science and practice of making a psychological diagnosis. A field of psychological science that develops methods for identifying and studying individual psychological characteristics of individuals and groups.

As a theoretical discipline, general psychodiagnostics examines the patterns of making valid and reliable diagnostic judgments, the rules of “diagnostic inferences”, with the help of which the transition from signs and indicators of a certain mental state, structure, process to a statement of the presence and severity of these psychological “variables” is carried out.

The theoretical foundations of psychodiagnostics are set by the relevant areas of psychological science (general, differential, developmental, medical psychology, etc.).

Methodological means of psychodiagnostics include specific techniques for studying individual psychological characteristics, methods of processing and interpreting the results obtained. At the same time, the directions of theoretical and methodological work in the field of psychodiagnostics are determined mainly by the needs of psychological practice. In accordance with these requests, specific sets of tools are formed that are correlated with the areas of work of practical psychologists (education, medicine, vocational selection, etc.).

The competence of psychodiagnostics includes the design and testing of methods, the development of requirements that they must satisfy, the development of rules for conducting examinations, methods for processing and interpreting results, and discussion of the possibilities and limitations of certain methods.

Psychodiagnostics is a field of psychological science that develops theory, principles and tools for assessing and measuring individual psychological characteristics of a person.

Educational psychodiagnostics not only widely uses a variety of psychological techniques, this area should include those tests that are created in accordance with psychometric requirements, but are intended not to assess abilities or personality traits, but to measure the success of mastering educational material (success tests).

Clinical psychodiagnostics is aimed at studying the individual psychological characteristics of the patient (structural and dynamic personality characteristics, attitude towards the disease, psychological defense mechanisms, etc.), which have a significant impact on the occurrence, course and outcome of both mental and somatic illness. Both educational and clinical psychodiagnostics are those areas of general psychodiagnostics in which the most significant amount of research has been carried out today.

Professional psychodiagnostics, since career guidance and selection are impossible without the use and development of diagnostic techniques. Each of the areas not only borrows the principles and research methods of general psychodiagnostics, but also has a developmental impact on it.

Question 2: Psychodiagnostics as a science.

1. The subject area of ​​psychology that studies this phenomenon. General psychodiagnostics is associated with general, social and differential psychology; private psychodiagnostics - with medical, developmental, advisory, clinical, labor and other areas of psychology.

2. Differential psychometrics as a science that substantiates and develops diagnostic measurement methods.

3. The practice of applying psychological knowledge, in which psychodiagnostic tasks are put forward and the identification of variables that act as objects of psychodiagnostics is justified.

4. Professional and life experience.

A diagnostic test is different from a scientific study.

A research psychologist is focused (including in the field of psychodiagnostics) on searching for unknown patterns connecting abstract variables, and uses “known” (that is, defined by some characteristic) subjects and neglects their individual differences and empirical integrity. For a psychodiagnostic psychologist in practice, it is these individual differences and empirical integrity that are the object of study; it is focused on searching for known patterns in “unknown” subjects.

Psychodiagnostic problems can be solved in various ways, but special psychodiagnostic techniques have a number of advantages:

1. Allows you to collect diagnostic information in a relatively short time;

2. The ability to obtain information about deep unconscious mental phenomena;

3. Provide specific information, i.e. not about a person in general, but about his individual characteristics (intelligence, anxiety, self-responsibility, personality traits, etc.);

4. Information is received in a form that allows for a qualitative and quantitative comparison of a person with other people;

5. Information obtained using diagnostic techniques is useful from the point of view of choosing means of intervention, forecasting its effectiveness, as well as forecasting development, communication, and the effectiveness of a particular human activity.

The psychodiagnostic method has certain specifics in relation to traditional research methods of psychological science - experimental and non-experimental (descriptive).

The basis of the psychodiagnostic method is its measurement and testing orientation, through which quantitative and qualitative qualification of the phenomenon being studied is achieved. This becomes possible as a result of meeting certain requirements.

1. The first requirement is the standardization of measurement, which is based on the concept of norm. Since an individual assessment (for example, the success of completing a particular task) can only be obtained by comparison with the results of other subjects. The test norm is the average level of development of a large population of people similar to a given test subject in a number of socio-demographic characteristics.

2. Also important for the psychodiagnostic method are the requirements for the reliability and validity of the measurement instrument, as well as strict regulation of the examination procedure: strict adherence to instructions, strictly defined ways of presenting stimulus material, non-interference of the researcher in the activities of the subject, etc.

In addition to the qualification of the phenomenon being studied, its interpretation is mandatory in the psychodiagnostic method.

The psychodiagnostic method is specified in three main diagnostic approaches, which cover almost the entire variety of available diagnostic techniques:

1. “Objective” approach – diagnostics is carried out on the basis of success (effectiveness) and the method (features) of performing the activity.

2. “Subjective” approach - diagnosis is carried out on the basis of information reported about oneself, self-description of personality characteristics, behavior in certain situations.

3. “Projective” approach – diagnostics based on the analysis of the features of interaction with outwardly neutral, seemingly impersonal material, which, due to its uncertainty (poor structure), becomes an object of projection.

Stages of standardization

At the test development stage, as well as any other method, a standardization procedure is carried out, which includes three stages.

First stage standardization of a psychological test consists of creating a uniform testing procedure. It includes determining the following aspects of the diagnostic situation:

testing conditions (room, lighting, and other external factors). Obviously, it is better to measure the volume of short-term memory (for example, using the digit repetition subtest in the Wechsler test) when there are no external stimuli, such as extraneous sounds, voices, etc.

Availability of standard stimulus material. For example, the reliability of the results obtained significantly depends on whether the respondent is offered homemade G. Rorschach cards or standard ones - with a certain color scheme and color shades.

1. Time restrictions for performing this test. For example, an adult respondent is given 20 minutes to complete the Raven test.

2. Standard form for performing this test. Using a standard form simplifies the processing procedure.

3. Taking into account the influence of situational variables on the testing process and result. Variables mean the condition of the test subject (fatigue, overexertion, etc.), non-standard testing conditions (poor lighting, lack of ventilation, etc.), interruption of testing.

4. Taking into account the influence of the diagnostician’s behavior on the testing process and result. For example, the experimenter’s approving and encouraging behavior during testing may be perceived by the respondent as a hint of the “correct answer,” etc.

5. Taking into account the influence of the respondent’s experience in testing. Naturally, the respondent, who was undergoing the testing procedure not for the first time, overcame the feeling of uncertainty and developed a certain attitude towards the test situation. For example, if the respondent has already completed the Raven test, then most likely it is not worth offering it to him a second time.

Second phase standardization of a psychological test consists of creating a uniform assessment of test performance: a standard interpretation of the results obtained and preliminary standard processing. This stage also involves comparing the obtained indicators with the norm for performing this test for a given age (for example, in intelligence tests), gender, etc. (see below).

Third stage standardization of a psychological test consists in determining the norms for performing the test.

Norms are developed for different ages, professions, genders, etc. Here are some of the existing types of norms:

The presence of normative data (norms) in standardized psychodiagnostic methods is their essential characteristic.

Standards are necessary when interpreting test results (primary indicators) as a standard against which test results are compared. For example, in intelligence tests, the resulting primary IQ score is correlated with the normative IQ (43, 44, 45 points in the Raven test). If the respondent’s obtained IQ is higher than the normative one, equal to 60 points (in the Raven’s test), we can talk about the level of intelligence development of this respondent as high. If the resulting IQ is lower, then low; if the obtained IQ is 43, 44 or 45 points, then average.

Internal consistency.

This implies the effect of the “I-concept” (“I” for myself) and the “I-image” (“I” for others) on the situational tactics of the subject at the time of testing. When performing a test, the subject is always in an involuntary dialogue with himself and in his answers to questions reveals himself not only to others, but also to himself. The subject seeks to confirm the “I-concept” or falsify a certain “I-image” with given properties. As a rule, in situations of high social risk, the “I-image” completely dominates: for example, during an examination, a criminal strives first of all to appear sick or unadapted to life, although in reality he would be pleased to think of himself as a completely adapted healthy person. In the same way, clients who seek help from a psychologist or psychotherapist tend to emphasize their difficulties and problems (in order to attract his increased attention). In less regulated situations, on the contrary, the motivation of self-knowledge may dominate: in this case, the subject involuntarily seeks to confirm his hypotheses about himself with the help of a test.

Determining standards for the test

At the stage of creating the test, a certain group of subjects is formed on which this test is carried out. The average result of this test in this group is considered to be the norm. The average result is not a single number, but a range of values ​​(see Fig. 1: zone of average values ​​- 43, 44, 45 points). There are certain rules for forming such a group of subjects, or, as it is otherwise called, standardization samples.

Standardization sampling rules:

1. the standardization sample should consist of respondents on whom this test is, in principle, aimed, that is, if the test being created is aimed at children (for example, the Amthauer test), then standardization should take place on children of a given age;

2. The standardization sample must be representative, that is, represent a reduced model of the population according to parameters such as age, gender, profession, geographic distribution, etc. The population is understood, for example, as a group of preschoolers aged 6-7 years, managers, teenagers, etc.

The distribution of the results obtained when testing subjects of the standardization sample can be depicted using a graph - normal distribution curve. This graph shows which values ​​of primary indicators are included in the zone of average values ​​(in the normal zone), and which are above and below the norm. For example, Fig. 1 shows the normal distribution curve for the Raven's Progressive Matrices test.

Most often, in the manuals for a particular test, you can find expressions of the norm not in the form of raw scores, but in the form of standard derived indicators. That is, the norms for a given test can be expressed in the form of T-scores, deciles, percentiles, stanines, standard IQs, etc. The conversion of raw values ​​(primary indicators) into standard (derivative) values ​​is done so that the results obtained from different tests are could be compared with each other.

Derived indicators are obtained by mathematical processing of primary indicators.

Primary indicators for different tests cannot be compared with each other due to the fact that the tests have different internal structures. For example, IQ obtained using the Wechsler test cannot be compared with IQ obtained using the Amthauer test, since these tests examine different features of intelligence and IQ as a total indicator for subtests consists of indicators of subtests that are different in structure and content.

"Any norm, no matter how it is expressed, is limited to the specific population for which it was developed... With regard to psychological tests, they (norms) are in no way absolute, universal or constant. They simply express the performance of the test by the subjects from the sample standardization"

Norms for the test are expressed in standard scores, by conversion from raw scores, in order to be able to compare the results obtained from different tests.

Problems of representativeness of test norms.

The following problems are considered in the representativeness of test norms:

1. Standardization of the scale.

2. Statistical nature of test scales. How to increase the share of the constant component and reduce the share of the random component in the total score on the test scale.

3. The problem of measures in psychometrics. In differential psychometrics there are no physical standards: we do not have individuals who would be permanent carriers of a given value of the property being measured. The role of indirect standards in psychometrics is performed by the tests themselves.

4. Assessing the type of distribution of test scores and checking the stability of the distribution. The following parameters are used: arithmetic mean, standard deviation, asymmetry, kurtosis, general Chebyshev inequality, Kolmogorov criterion. The general logic for testing the robustness of a distribution is based on inductive reasoning: if a “half” (obtained from half the sample) distribution well models the configuration of the whole distribution, then we can assume that this whole distribution will well model the distribution of the population.

Proving the stability of the distribution means proving the representativeness of the norms. The traditional way of proving stability comes down to finding out a good approximation of the empirical distribution to some theoretical one (for example, a normal distribution, although there can be any other).

5. Test standards (or test norms).

5.1. The raw scale itself may have practical meaning.

5.2. Standardized scales: IQ scale, T-scale, stanine scale (standard nine), stan scale.

5.Z. Percentile scale. Percentile is the percentage of subjects from the standardization sample who received a score equal to or lower than the score of the given subject. Percentiles indicate the relative position of an individual in the standardization sample. They can be considered as ranking gradations, the total number of which is one hundred, only (unlike ranking) the counting is from below. Therefore, the lower the percentile, the worse the individual's position. Percentiles are different from percentages. Percentage indicators record the quality of completed tasks. Percentile is a derived indicator indicating the proportion of the total number of group members.

5.4. Criteria norms. The target criterion is used as a standard. Highly specialized diagnostic techniques aimed at very specific and narrow criteria show high efficiency. Well recommended in the field of education (achievement tests and CAT).

5.5. Socio-psychological standard.

Independent of test results and objectively specified. The SPT is implemented in a set of tasks that make up the test. Consequently, the test itself in its entirety is such a standard. To analyze the data regarding their proximity to the SPN, considered as 100% test completion, the subjects are divided into 5 subgroups. For each subgroup, the average percentage of those who completed the tasks correctly is calculated.

10% – the most successful, 20% – close to successful, 40% – average,

20% are less successful, 10% are least successful.

Ticket No. 13 Scale ratings.

Scale ratings are a way of assessing a test result by establishing its place on a special scale. Stevens defined 4 levels of measurement scales, differing in the degree to which the estimates belonging to them retain the properties of the set of real numbers. These are the scales:

Nominal (or nominative, naming scale)

Ordinal

Interval

Relationship scale.

Interpretation of test results

In tests with normative-oriented interpretation, the main task is to determine the comparative place of each test taker in the general group of test takers. Obviously, the place of each subject depends on the background of which group he is being assessed against. The same result can be classified as quite high if the group is weak, and quite low if the group is strong. That is why it is necessary, whenever possible, to use standards that reflect the test results of a large representative sample of subjects.

In tests with criterion-oriented interpretation, the task is to compare the educational achievements of each student with the amount of knowledge, skills and abilities planned for acquisition. In this case, a specific content area is used as an interpretative frame of reference, rather than a particular sample of subjects. The main problem is establishing a passing score that separates those who have mastered the material being tested from those who have not.

Establishing test performance standards

To eliminate the dependence of interpretation on the results of other test participants, special test performance norms are used, and thus, the primary score of an individual test taker is compared with the test performance norms. Norms are a set of indicators that are established empirically based on the test results of a clearly defined sample of subjects. The development and procedures for obtaining these indicators constitute the process of norming (or standardizing) the test. The most common norms are the mean and standard deviation of multiple individual scores. Correlating the subject's primary score with performance standards allows us to establish the subject's place in the sample used to standardize the test.

Coding Test Scores– element of the procedure for processing data from a psychodiagnostic examination. Used in multi-parameter test batteries, personality questionnaires, other methods that involve presenting the result in the form profile assessments.

Coding test scores makes it possible to more economically and concisely describe the totality of scale scores, the profile of scales, as well as a clearer and faster breakdown of the material into clinically (or characterologically) similar groups. Coding test scores helps identify the most common characteristics and patterns in the group being studied. Formalization of complex test assessments is an important element of creating a data bank and automated processing of survey data (see computer psychodiagnostics).

Scale ratings– a method of assessing a test result by establishing its place on a special scale. The scale contains data on intragroup norms for performing this technique in the standardization sample. Thus, individual results of completing tasks (primary assessments of subjects) are compared with data in a comparable normative group (for example, the result achieved by a student is compared with the indicators of children of the same age or year of study; the result of a study of the general abilities of an adult is compared with statistically processed indicators of a representative sample of individuals within specified age limits).

Scale scores in this sense have quantitative content and can be used in statistical analysis. One of the most common forms of assessing a test result in psychological diagnostics by correlation with group data is the calculation percentiles. Percentile is the percentage of individuals from the standardization sample whose results are lower than a given primary indicator. The percentile scale can be considered as a set of rank gradations (see rank correlation) with the number of ranks being 100 and starting from the 1st rank, corresponding to the lowest result; The 50th percentile (PSQ) corresponds to the median (see measures of central tendency) of the outcome distribution, P›50 and P‹50, respectively, represent the ranks of outcomes above and below the mean level of the outcome.

Percentile scores are not typical scale scores. Standard indicators, calculated on the basis of linear and nonlinear transformation of primary indicators distributed according to a normal or close to normal law, have become more widespread in psychodiagnostics. With this calculation, an r-transformation of estimates is carried out (see standardization, normal distribution). To determine the 2-standard indicator, determine the difference between the individual primary result and the mean for the normal group, and then divide this difference by the a of the normative sample. The z scale obtained in this way has a midpoint M = 0, negative values ​​indicate results below average and decrease as they move away from the zero point; Positive values ​​indicate results above average. The unit of measurement (scale) in the z scale is equal to 1a of the standard (unit) normal distribution.

To transform the distribution of primary normative results obtained during standardization into a standard z-scale, it is necessary to investigate the question of the nature of the empirical distribution and the degree of its consistency with the normal one. Since for most cases the values ​​of the indicators in the distribution fit within M ± 3σ, the units of the simple z-scale are too large. For ease of estimation, another transformation of the type z = (x – ‹x›) / σ is used. An example of such a scale would be the assessments of the test battery SAT (SEEB) methodology for assessing learning ability (see achievement tests). This r-scale is recalculated so that the midpoint is 500 and σ = 100. Another similar example is the Wechsler scale for individual subtests (see Wechsler intelligence scale, where M = 10, σ = 3).

Along with determining the place of an individual result in the standard distribution of group data, the introduction of SHO is also aimed at achieving another important goal - ensuring the comparability of the quantitative results of various tests expressed in standard scales, the possibility of their joint interpretation, and reducing assessments to a single system.

If both distributions of estimates in the compared methods are close to normal, the issue of comparability of estimates is resolved quite simply (in any normal distribution, the intervals M ± nσ correspond to the same frequency of cases). To ensure comparability of results belonging to distributions of a different shape, nonlinear transformations are used to give the distribution the shape of a given theoretical curve. The normal distribution is usually used as such a curve. Like the 160–150 in the simple z-transform, normalized standard scores can be given any desired shape. For example, multiplying such a normalized standard score by 10 and adding a constant of 50, we get the T-score (see standardization, Minnesota Multidimensional Personality Inventory).

An example of a non-linearly converted into a standard scale is the stanine scale (from the English standard nine - “standard nine”), where the ratings take values ​​from 1 to 9, M = 5, σ = 2.

The stanine scale is becoming increasingly widespread, combining the advantages of standard scale indicators and the simplicity of percentiles. Primary indicators are easily converted into stanina. To do this, subjects are ranked in ascending order of results and from them they are formed into groups with a number of individuals proportional to certain frequencies of assessments in the normal distribution of test results (Table 14).

Table 14

Translation of primary test results into the stanine scale

When transforming ratings into a stan scale (from the English standard ten - “standard ten”), a similar procedure is carried out with the only difference that this scale is based on ten standard intervals. Let there be 200 people in the standardization sample, then 8 (4%) subjects with the lowest and highest scores will be assigned to 1 and 9 stanines, respectively. The procedure continues until all scale intervals are filled. The test scores corresponding to the percentage gradations will thus be ordered into a scale corresponding to the standard frequency distribution of the result.

One of the most common forms of scale ratings in intelligence tests is the standard IQ indicator (M = 100, σ = 16). These parameters for the standard rating scale in psychodiagnostics were chosen as reference. There are quite a few scales that rely on standardization; their estimates are easily reducible to each other. Scaling, in principle, is acceptable and desirable for a wide range of techniques used for diagnostic and research purposes, including for techniques whose results are expressed in qualitative indicators. In this case, for standardization, you can use the translation of nominative scales into rank scales (see measurement scales) or develop a differentiated system of quantitative primary assessments.

It should be noted that, despite their simplicity and clarity, scale indicators are statistical characteristics that only allow one to indicate the place of a given result in a sample of many measurements of a similar nature. A scale score, even for a traditional psychometric instrument, is only one form of expression of test scores used in interpreting survey results. In this case, a quantitative analysis should always be carried out in conjunction with a multilateral qualitative study of the reasons for the occurrence of a given test result, taking into account both a complex of information about the personality of the subject and data on the current conditions of the examination, the reliability and validity of the methodology. Exaggerated ideas about the possibility of valid conclusions based only on quantitative estimates led to many erroneous ideas in the theory and practice of psychological diagnostics.

IQ concept.

IQ is a quantitative indicator of intellectual development.

Intelligence tests consist of several subtests aimed at measuring intellectual functions (logical thinking, semantic and associative memory, etc.).

IQ = intelligence age/chronological age * 100

IQ or any other measure should always be given along with the name of the test on which it was obtained. Test scores cannot be interpreted in isolation from the specific test.

Ticket No. 26 Achievement tests.

An achievement test is a group of psychodiagnostic techniques aimed at assessing the achieved level of development of skills and knowledge.

2 groups of achievement tests:

1. Tests of learning success (used in the education system)

2. Tests of professional achievements (tests for diagnosing special knowledge and work skills necessary to perform professional and labor actions).

An achievement test is the opposite of an aptitude test. Differences: There is a difference between these tests in the degree of uniformity of prior experience that is diagnosed. While an aptitude test reflects the influence of the cumulative variety of experiences students receive, an achievement test reflects the influence of a relatively standard course of learning something.

The purpose of using aptitude tests and achievement tests:

ability tests - to predict differences in the success of an activity

· achievement tests – provide a final assessment of knowledge and skills upon completion of training.

Neither aptitude tests nor achievement tests diagnose abilities, skills, or giftedness, but only the success of a previous achievement. There is an assessment of what a person has learned.

Classification of achievement tests.

Broadly oriented - to assess knowledge and skills, compliance with the main learning objectives (calculated over a long period of time). For example: achievement tests for understanding scientific principles.

Highly specialized - mastering individual principles, individual or academic subjects. For example: mastering a topic in mathematics - the prime numbers section - how this section was mastered.

Purposes of using achievement tests.

Instead of teacher evaluation. A number of advantages compared to teacher assessment: objectivity - you can find out how much the main topics have been mastered, identifying the main ones. You can build a profile of mastery of each topic.

Achievement tests are very compact. Achievement tests are group tests and are therefore convenient. The learning process itself can be assessed and improved.

How to design achievement tests?

1. The achievement test consists of tasks that reflect a specific area of ​​the course content. First you need to plan the topic of content, identify important topics in the course of study. The teacher who taught the topics should participate in the construction of the achievement test. The psychodiagnostician must know the main topics.

2. Exclude secondary knowledge and unimportant details from the task. It is desirable that the completion of tasks depends to a small extent on the student’s mechanical memory, but rather depends on the student’s understanding and critical assessment.

3. Assignments should be representative of the learning objectives. There are learning goals, the success of mastering the material, which are difficult to assess (for example, mastering a topic about rights), then you need to write assignments in such a way as to reflect the mastery of the material.

4. The achievement test must fully cover the area of ​​the academic subject that is to be studied. Assignments should be broadly representative of the area being studied.

5. Test tasks must be free from extraneous complicating elements, there must be no complicating elements, there must be no additional difficulties.

6. Each task is accompanied by answer options.

7. The task must be clearly, concisely and unambiguously formulated. So that no task is a hint for another test task (check after compilation).

Answers should be structured in such a way as to exclude the possibility of recalling answers (that is, do not give answer options that are not related to the topic or very easy ones so that the subject cannot guess, discarding the answer options as obviously unacceptable).

8. The fulfillment criterion is set. The psychologist develops a large number of tasks, not all of them will be included in the test. To begin with, all tasks are checked. The test will include those tasks that are solved by a 100% majority of people who have a good command of the material. The second test is for those who do not master the material - they must complete less than half. Assignments are compiled according to the maximum criterion. 90-100% - high level of training. The achievement test is not assessed against a static norm, but against the class. The individual result is compared.

Tests of professional achievements.

Vocational achievement tests are used to evaluate the effectiveness of professional training or vocational training. To select people for the most responsible positions - professional selection. Used to assess the skill level of employees when moving to another position. The goal is to assess the level of training in professional knowledge and skills.

3 forms of professional achievement tests:

1. action execution test

2. written

3. oral tests of professional achievements